Name What is Permaculture

Aim To gauge participants level of understanding of permaculture. To get participants thinking about the topic. Timing First session Resources 5 strips of paper per participant, glue, felt pens. Large sheets of paper Activity • Each participant to write on slips of paper 5 statements/words to answer ‘What does permaculture mean to you’ • Get in pairs and swap responses, merging any that say similar things (throw one slip away) and putting aside any that the other person doesn’t agree with. • Join 2 pairs together and repeat. Then decide on headings and paste statements onto paper under these headings. • Each group to report back to class giving a reflection on the process (not to read statements). Notes Handout paper, pens and glue before describing activity Stress there are no right or wrong answers Summary Points • Charts show that PC is about both concepts and application • There are many interconnections between all the responses • Draw on the theme of design and how this aspect within permaculture differentiates it from other areas such as organic gardening. Example: Within an organic farm, there may be the same elements such as a compost, vegie beds, greenhouse and chickens, but their placement within that system is not necessarily thought about through using a design process.

What is Permaculture?

Design science and ethics (ethics = the way the environment tells us to behave) • It’s not about meta-physics, although you may well believe. • The proven sciences are where we operate.

Geoff Lawton Pc is a system of design that provides for human needs….. • You don’t need a set definition • Your answer will depend on the person and what is right at the time.

What is Sustainable? – Needs an energy audit (Energy Returned on Energy Invested) • A system is sustainable if it produces more energy than it consumes, at least enough surplus to maintain and replace that system over its lifetime.

WHAT IS AN ETHIC?

Moral beliefs and actions based on survival on the planet Personal belief system related to a societal belief system Different cultures evolve different ethics which bind them together in a common belief system

HOW DO ETHICS EVOLVE? Awareness of survival comes first, then societies form rules about how to survive together Think, reflect act on previous knowledge - make rules of necessitous use, rules of conservative use, rules for harmonious habitation

PERSONAL ETHICS ACTIVITY: REFLECT ON YOUR PERSONAL ETHICS. HOW HAVE THEY FORMED? ARE THEY BASED ON YOUR PERCEPTION OF SOCIETAL ETHICS OR DIFFERENT?

GROUP ETHICS ACTIVITY: IN GROUPS DISCUSS ETHICS WITHOUT JUDGEMENT. DECIDE IF THERE IS ANY COMMONALITY BETWEEN THE ETHICS STATED BY INDIVIDUALS IN THE GROUP. ARE THEY VERY PERSONAL ETHICS OR SOCIETAL ETHICS?

PERMACULTURE ETHICS AND HOW THEY EVOLVED The Permaculture Design Manual starts with “Permaculture is about design, values, ethics and a personal responsibility for earth care… Prime directive of permaculture – the only ethical decision is to take responsibility for our own existance and that of our children. Principle of co-operation, not competition is the basis of existing life forms and of future survival.”

Ethics of pc were developed from research into community ethics adopted by religious and co-operative groups – originators Bill and David were seeking universal ethics to guide our actions.

Generally in sustainable cultures evolves survival ethic – if something has to be used, use it wisely, account for it, replace it, assess the impact of its use. Leads to a realisation that human survival is based on systems survival, so an earthcare ethic evolves. Once basic needs are met, people turn to relationships with other people, animals and systems. Enlightened self interest leads to sustainable sensible behaviour.

The three ethics of permaculture are Care of Earth, Care of People and Share of Surplus

Care of Earth – care of living and non living things, soils, species, ecosystems, atmosphere,water. Rehabilitation and conservation, careful use of resources, treading lightly on the Earth.

Care of People – providing for our basic needs, shelter, food, satisfying employment, social contact.

Share of surplus – extend our energies towards helping others achieve above, fair distribution of surplus time, skills, money, produce.

HOW DO YOUR ETHICS FIT WITH PC ETHICS? ACTIVITY: LOOK BACK AT PERSONAL AND GROUP ETHICS LIST AND DETERMINE IF ANY EXISTING ETHICS LISTED FIT IN WITH PC ETHICS.

HOW CAN WE IMPLEMENT THE THREE ETHICS OF PC IN OUR DAILY LIVES? ACTIVITY: LOOK AT ACTION STATEMENTS IN GROUPS AND DECIDE HOW ACTIONS BEST REFLECT THE THREE ETHICS. SORT CARDS AFTER GROUP DISCUSSION. GROUPS THEN ADD ANY IDEAS FOR IMPLEMENTING THESE THREE ETHICS IN DAILY LIFE.

PERMACULTURAL ACTIONS BASED ON ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

EARTH CARE; PEOPLE CARE; FAIR SHARE

• PLANT TREES • SUPPORT ORGANIC GROWERS AND SUPPLIERS • REHABILITATE SOILS – RESTORE SOIL FERTILITY • CULTIVATE THE SMALLEST AREA POSSIBLE • REDUCE USE OF POLLUTING AGENTS (PETROL, CHEMICALS, DETERGENTS ETC) • MAKE AND USE COMPOST • SEE SOLUTIONS NOT PROBLEMS. WORK TOGETHER TO SOLVE PROBLEMS • GROW YOUR OWN FOOD • INCREASE DIVERSITY OF SPECIES • USE RENEWABLE ENERGY (EG SOLAR HOT WATER) • FORM SMALL CO-OPERATIVE LOCAL GROUPS • SHARE SEEDS, PLANTS AND PRODUCE • SHARE YOUR KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

MATERIALS FOR THIS SESSION: • HANDOUT - PERMACULTURE ETHICS FROM INTRODUCTION TO PERMACULTURE MOLLISON B. 1993 TAGARI PUBLICATIONS P3 • POSTER PAPER AND TEXTAS FOR GROUP DISCUSSION • PREPARED POSTERS AND ACTIVITY CARDS, BLUTACK • ETHICS OUTLINE FOR BOARD

PRINCIPLES (Directives to act).

1. Multifunction

Class exercise

• Split into groups • Each given 3 elements and a plain house block. • Asked to place those elements so that they are performing at least 3 functions

Placing an element so that it performs at least 3 functions.

Clever design placement utilising everyday behaviours is different to forcing an element to function.

If we try to force too many work functions on an element, it collapses. (One can’t reasonably expect a cow to give milk, raise a calf, forage its own food, plough, haul water, and tread a corn mill)

2. Back up your major functions

Ensure that each major function is provided for by more than one element

In case one fails, your system will still be resilient.

• Split class into groups with a different major function each. • Fire, Water, Energy, Income, Food • List a number of ways we can back up that function

3. Diversity (Functional Interconnection)

Ask class “2 birds, the first eats just one fruit, the second a wide range. Which one will have the more stable life?” Draw graph of 2 situations Bring back to monoculture v polyculture Diversity = stability Won’t reach same highs as monoculture, but won’t reach lows. This case = Diverse products creates stability of income

Diversity of ages creates stability As with people, the youngest and the oldest are the most susceptible. A diverse range of ages means there will always be elements at their strongest, and ongoing stability of the system. A single aged monoculture will all die in a relatively short period of time, having to go through a period of infancy and susceptibility once again.

Cycling in natural systems (Outputs taken up by other parts of the system). Eg. Pest strategies in forest, why one pest doesn’t take over? Diversity = Stability The stability is not rigid, but fluid like riding a bike (constantly making corrections)

By designing a diverse system we too can achieve this stability. However, it’s not the number of diverse elements we have in the system which creates stability, but the functional interconnection between them.

• To increase cycling is to increase yield. • Cycles in nature are diversion routes away from entropic ends – life itself cycles nutrients – giving opportunities for yield, and thus opportunities for species to occupy time niches. • It is our tolerance of the proliferation of life which enables such cycles • Bill’s Stupidity Principle – “stupidity is an attempt to iron out all differences and not to use them creatively. • Deprived systems, like those blasted by biocides, lose most or all opportunity to transcend their prior state, and the egg of life is broken.

 Diversity with functional interconnection =  Cycling = Storage Picture of linear model from source to sink Picture with web of connections from source to sink. The more it cycles the longer that captured sunlight remains in our system “Our job as designers is to set up a net form source to sink to make use of resources as many times as possible before leaving our site.”

4. Energy Cycling

Continuing on from previous. Where possible we should also design to bring those resources back into the system to be cycled once again. Examples: • Water (windmill up to header tank) • Comfrey at base of garden back as mulch or to chooks • Compost toilet v sewage to ocean • Waste scraps > Animals > Eggs > Humans > Faeces > Garden > Humans or animals

Vegetarianism

• Bill admits that the direct conversion of herbage to human is more efficient than cycling through other animals, o ie 1kg frog takes 10kg of grasshoppers on its way up the system. o However the other 9 kg is all cycled back into the system as manure, o This encourages more plants to grow o Creates food for more grasshoppers etc.

“Even if they are poor protein converters, they are still worth having purely for their manure.” Bill Mollison

Even if vegetarians do not wish to eat animals from the system, they can still be an integral part. As animals get older, they are basically recyclers, taking nothing from the system (in fact they get lighter).

• Vegetarian diets are very efficient, providing o They are based on easily cooked or easily processed crop grown in home gardens (soy beans take a huge amount of energy to process) o That wastes, especially bodily wastes are returned to the soil of that garden o That we eat from where we live, and don’t exploit others or incur large transport costs. (many grains or grain legumes come from areas where hunger is very real mung beans – India; Chickpeas – Ethiopia; Soy beans – India and Africa.) • Omnivorous diets make the best use of complex natural systems. ( o animals convert inedible plants into edible forms ie goats eat woody weeds) o To try to feed only from plant diets would require us to clear land and kill other plant and animals species in the process. • Carnivorous diets have a valid place in special ecologies o Cold areas where gardening is not a sufficient food base o Areas where food is gathered from the sea o Where harsh conditions mean reliance on animals as gatherers • We should always do energy audits on whatever we eat..

5. Small Scale Intensive Systems

• Original Permaculture idea “ To provide for our own needs in the smallest space possible, to allow the rest to go back to nature” • What appealed to me (mountain climbing example) • Reasons we would do this (depends on World View) o Ethical decision: To reduce our impact ie Forests are able to flourish, Chickens in battery Sheds o Enlightened Self interest:  Maximum output from minimum space (Food forest picture)  Maximum utilisation of natural resources – soil, water & sun   management, ie weeding due to  mental input design  Max return from minimum resources (multi functional building =  concrete slab, roofing, walls, plumbing, electricity etc) o Site is under control  Don’t extend further than you can manage  Don’t extend too far too quickly  Ensure you can mange what you’ve got before you extend o Reduced energy use per person  Rather than large harvesters and transport trucks, Pc is tuned to:  Hand tools on small sites (secateurs, machete, scythe etc)  Modest Energy users on larger sites (brushcutter, chainsaw, slasher)

6. Accelerating Succession and Evolution

Nature’s succession process: Grass > Herbs > Pioneers > Early Secondary > Climax

• Each stage builds fertility and provides the conditions which enable the next stage to take over. • By understanding the process we can speed this up o Compost speeds up succession by concentrating nutrients and O.M and places it at the base of the productive element. Manual labour has sped up the process nature would have undertaken over a number of years. o Leguminous plants build soil fertility and provide nitrogen from their root nodules, especially if chopped back. By placing them strategically next to our main elements, they can provide these functions directly for our tree. o Cover crop – intended to build organic matter levels in the soil. • Some elements are designed to exist only as the system builds. o ie. – Competition with grass greatly reduces the rate of growth of trees. o Geese build soil fertility, keeping grass down whilst trees are small. o They like an open line of site so they can see predators approaching. o As trees grow up, visibility is reduced and the geese may leave. o However, by this point, the trees can look after themselves o The Geese have played their part, but now the system has evolved past that point.

7. Use Biological Resources

In a Permaculture system we use biological resources (plants & animals) wherever possible to save energy and to do the work of the farm.

Quick brainstorm on what a biological resource is? Animals, plants, trees, insects and worms right down to microbial activity

Functions include providing: fuel, insect control, nutrient recycling, soil aeration, pasture improvement, fire control, erosion control, fencing etc

Activity: 2 Groups – I want you to compare the techniques used by a conventional farmer, with the options and possibility of using biological resources as a permaculture farmer. Each farmer is to produce an end crop. Think about all of the stages in conventional farming:

Give example: For example, may use green manure crop to by incorporated into soil and also prevent wind and water erosion.

Preparing the soil: pigs plough, chickens scratch and fertilize, plant green manure crops, ‘Sowing’ the seed: can get animals to eat whole seeds ‘fertilizing’ the plants: managing water needs: trees shading canals control of pests: lizards, frogs control of disease: sheep eating dropped apples in orchard harvest crops: woofers

Use a number of examples from the property, including helpful additions.

Key to use of biological resources = management. If not managed, get out of control. Key to management = timing. Ie geese in strawberry patch. Too early and plants not strong enough, too late and will eat strawberries.

Non biological resources are OK in the beginning of a Permaculture system, provided they are working towards a sustainable biological system. Any energy used in the creation of a system should be more than repaid in the life of the system for it to be sustainable.

8. Relative Location

Design Exercise: Integrated Chicken System

Needs, Function, Products analysis • NFP of chicken with the class • Groups of 3: given 1 element each to create a NFP analysis. ie orchard, vegie garden, greenhouse, pigs, ducks, aquaculture pond. (write on large paper so other groups can refer to later) (5 mins) • Draw a quick design matching the element analysed with the chicken. Refer to the two NFP & match the needs of each element with the outputs of the other where possible. Looking for as many connections as possible. (10 mins) • Present design to class with brief feedback. (15 mins) • Create design integrating all of the elements. Again, match the needs of one element with products of another. Looking for as many connections as possible (30 minutes) • Present designs with feedback (30 mins)

Pollution = an unused resource

9. Edge Effect

Covered in patterns class

10. Energy Efficient Planning

Key to efficient energy planning is the zone and sector placement of plants, animals and structures. • Only modifiers are: local factors of market, access, slope, local climatic quirks, areas of special interest (flood planes, rocky hillsides) and special soil conditions.

ZONE PLANNING

Placing elements according to how much we use them or how often we need to service them. • Areas visited every day nearby • Areas visited less often further away • Common Sense, but often not followed veg garden at back corner)

Zoning decided by: • Number of times you need to visit the element for harvest or yield • Number of times the element needs you to visit it. • Some examples of visits to chickens, dairy, apple tree, timber eucalypt. • If 500 visits per year. 5m extra = 10m return = 5km per year.

EXERCISE – Part 1 Elements on cards prepared already Hand a few out to each student Each person places their elements on a map drawn on the floor and explains why they would place it where they did.

Zone 0 • Centre of activity (house, commercial nursery, business)

Zone 1 • Close to the house. • The most controlled and intensively used area. • Vegie garden, workshops, greenhouse, small animals (rabbits, guinea pigs) firewood, clothesline, worms, lemon tree.

Zone 2 • Still intensively maintained less frequently visited. • Dense plantings of larger shrubs, small fruit and mixed orchard, windbreaks. • Structures: terraces, hedges, trellis, ponds • Plant and animals requiring care and attention. o Drippers to trees o Poultry into orchard, o Dairy cow lane from outer zone.

Zone 3 • Unpruned and un-mulched orchards, larger pastures or ranges for meat animals, main crop. • Animals: Cows, Sheep • Watering to selected trees. Swales.

Zone 4 • Semi-managed, semi-wild. • Woodlot, Forestry, Hardy Foods

Zone 5 • Unmanaged, natural or wild systems. • We are visitors, not managers. Here we observe and learn.

Idealised = concentric circles radiating out. In practice, • Zones will blur into each other • Landform or site access may effect • McDonalds theory o Place zone 1 next to regular pathways o Increase edge of regular trips ie round trip to chickens, clothesline past vegies. o Berries and fruit trees along kids daily path to school.

Golden rule – develop the nearest area first and then expand to the edges.

More than one centre of activity Linkages must be carefully planned concerning access, water, energy supply, sewage, fencing, windbreaks etc.

David Holmgren’s ‘network analysis’ – plans for more complex sites making connections between roads, pipes, windbreaks etc to service more than one centre.

SECTOR PLANNING

Deals with wild energies coming from outside system. It is arranged in a sector diagram, with wedges radiating out from centre of activity. Examples include:

• Fire danger • Cold or damaging winds • Hot winds • Salt winds or dust • Sun angles • Flood zone • Soil types (sandy, clay, rocky outcrop etc) • Water reflection • Wildlife corridors • Pleasant/unpleasant views • Public passing by

Place design components to manage incoming energies • Block or screen out • Channel for specific uses • Open to allow ie. maximum sunlight.

EXERCISE – Part 2 Introduce some sectors into the previous exercise Ask each student to pick up one element which they would move as a result.

SLOPE

Look at site in profile Allows us to decide on placement of elements to take advantage of gravity or “Kick Down” • Greywater, Orchard, chickens, vegie garden, nutrient catchers • High dam for gravity water, fed by high access rd. Low dam to catch before leaving property. Pumped back up hill. • Sheds uphill of house can provide gravity water to house. • Duck pond above garden for nutrient rich water • Animal access to carry manure up hill.

EXERCISE – Part 3 Introduce slope into the previous exercise Ask each student to pick up one element which they would move as a result.

11. Obtain a yield

Energy Fundamentals

12. The Precautionary Principle

Designing for extreme events Not pessimistic, realistic

13. Attitudinal Principles

Work with Nature rather than against it The Problem is the solution Make the least change for the greatest possible effect The yield of a system is theoretically unlimited Everything gardens

METHODS OF DESIGN

ANALYSIS Covered in relative location principle with integrated chicken design exercise

OBSERVATION • Begins on and around the site • Maps and overlays are very useful design tools. But there is nothing like observation, walking and experiencing the land, for dependability and relevance. • ie. Experiencing heavy rain events allows us to design for least change. • Observation can be hard to direct. • A note book and camera are great aids. • A number of attitudes can be taken: o CHILD-LIKE, NON SELECTIVE APPROACH  “I wonder why….” May preface actual observation o THEMATIC APPROACH  ie. Water, potential energy sources, conditions for natural regeneration in the area. o INSTRUMENTAL APPROACH  To measure light, wind speeds, temperatures etc. o EXPERIENTIAL APPROACH  Using all of the senses  Trying to be fully conscious of specific details, sensations and the total ambience of the site  esoteric factors (feelings) – how do certain places feel, use all senses, note views, sit down, relax, observe. look at patterns like trees bent in the wind, path of the sun, where does the dog like to lie (microclimate finders!!) start to look for certain indicators, especially vegetation, weeds as indicators of drainage, salinity, waterlogging or compaction. note potential problems, boggy areas, outbreaks of noxious weeds, poor soils, erosion.

• Possible procedure: 1. Value free notes about what is seen 2. Select some observations which interest you 3. Confirm or Deny Speculations (Library, talking with experienced people, further observation) 4. Examine info at hand. What patterns exist? 5. How can we find use for the info. What design strategies does it suggest?

DEDUCTIONS FROM NATURE • This was the inspiration for Fukuoka (healthy bearing rice plants beside road vs their hard work.) • Using our senses & organised information we can discover a lot about natural processes in the area. • In order to put it to use we need to look at: o STRUCTURE  Observe the structure of natural systems  Use example of rainforest edge beside road= densest, most productive. o PROCESS  Where does water run? How does it absorb? How does a certain tree propagate itself?  Example of Rainforest regeneration. Lantana > shades out pasture grass > habitat for small birds > Birds drop rainforest seeds > seedlings come up > allow lantana to creep forward taking more of pasture > slash and allow new seedlings to get up and shade lantana. o LANDSCAPE  Gullies, ridges, sides of Multistorey buildings.  Observe niches and why and how they exist. What grows there etc. We can: • Design such niches into the system • Fill such niches productively  Reading the Landscape (wind direction, weed indicators etc)  Building personal knowledge of appropriate plants from similar situations (example of durian on river-flat)

OPTIONS & DECISIONS • A design has many potential outcomes. • Above all, it’s the stated aims, lifestyle and resources of the clients that decide their options. • Often begins with a general decision (a distant goal) often set by an ethical decision (earth care, or fear of peak oil) which leads to a second set of possible options (food, energy, & water security). • For a specific site and specific occupants, a design is a sequence of options based on such things as: o Product or crop options o Social investment options o Skills and occupations (education available) o Market availability, or specific market options o Management skills

DATA OVERLAY • Now very easy with computer programmes • A good design map makes any landscape design much easier and more visual. It: o Indicates sensible options (ie. Contour map for dams) o Options later checked against site conditions (presence of clay, existing vegetation, threatened habitat)

RANDOM ASSEMBLY • List of elements with connecting words (in, on, beside, around, under, containing, attached to) • A good generator of creativity. Free from rationality. o Enables new ideas to come about o Good method to check yourself now and again, stops you getting set in your ways o Space you hadn’t thought of occupying before may present itself (house on Dam)

FLOW DIAGRAMS • Good for work places • Maps the movement of people (kitchens, nurseries, eco-village) • Robyn Francis example in main street of Nimbin, deciding crossing placement. Set up map with photos of buildings.

INCREMENTAL DESIGN • This is a successful way to proceed after selective placement and energy conservation is paid sufficient attention. • Involves following the physical systems of successful designs which have been shown to work (many having evolved over centuries ie roads, culverts, retaining walls etc) • Can be totally inappropriate if transferred out of culture, climate or if applied to a different purpose.

ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF SYSTEMS Locating and costing components • A design = assembly of components. • First priority is to locate and cost components. • Set priorities based on economic reality. • Where resources are few, look at the site itself (rocks, animals, weeds, etc) • From early in design process source: o Seed, pots and hardy cuttings  Neighbours, public nurseries, forestry department o Other resources ie 2nd hand bricks, roofing, timber etc. o Look at trading resources.

Planning stage - critical: • Need to take evolution in stages • Break up job into easily achieved parts. • To place components needed early in the development.  Water, access, nursery, energy supply, fencing etc. • Address problem sectors (wind and firebreaks etc)

Plant establishment • Essential precursors on rural site o Fencing o Soil rehabilitation o Erosion control o Water supply o Complete all soil shaping (roads, swales, terraces, dams etc)

Location priority • Zone 1 & 2 first (support the household) • Very important: o Develop very compact systems  Much easier to look after 4m2 vs 40m2  Ie 10 fruit and nut trees • Consolidate one area, then move on. • Begin with nucleus and expand outwards o Most successful, morale building, easily achieved way to proceed o Breaks up the job into small, easily achieved parts. o Long Lists will overwhelm, write down only next stage o Only in design phase is site looked at as a whole (ensures smaller components we work on are always in relation to a larger plan).

Species selection • Use those proven to be suited to site. o Past experience o Research o Local observation • Modest trials carried out before significant investment

Sensible approach • Don’t leap towards imaginary end point. • Need to evolve from small beginnings. 1. Gain a foothold 2. Stabilise a small area 3. Develop self reliance 4. then look for exportable yields • Commercial planting – restrict to 3-10 reliable plants (easier harvesting, marketing etc). More possible on home garden and orchard scale.

GENERAL PRACTICAL PROCEDURES • A walk around the site with no preconceived ideas can be very helpful. What does the land suggest to you? Quiet mind, Zen state. Practiced by many designers. • Begin with clear assessment of client or occupier’s o Needs o Aims o Ideas (of all potential occupiers including children) • Proceed with observation of site (using base map, aerial photo, or person as guide) o Make notes and select places for  Access-ways and other earthworks  Housing and buildings  Water supply and irrigation  Energy systems  Specific forest, crop and animal system placement. o Placement determined in relation to:  Slope  Soil suitability  Existing landforms • Design methodologies must be accompanied by management plan. • Restrictions must be ascertained (ie government regulations on buildings, sewage etc. Gain necessary approvals)

APPROACHING YOUR SITE

A successful approach to design, as recommended by Bill and Geoff.

1) Water • The priority element in design (opinion of many Pc designers including Bill and Geoff) • Our starting point because obvious patterns reveal themselves • Reserve all possible areas for the life of the property (swales, dam sites etc) 2) Access • This must work around water, and often works with (above swale, dam wall access etc) 3) Structures • Placement becomes obvious in relation to water and access 4) Plants, Animals • Reserve all slopes over 14 for forest o Unsafe for a tractor o Bill – pollen producers + durable timber = very productive forest • What are the owners good at? (have they kept sheep) • Climate • Soil • Aspect 5) 2-3 excellent inventive strikes.

Where do I start? (Major influencing factors which need to be accounted for)

• Aspect • Slope / topography • Soil • Average rainfall (large event sizes) • Prevailing winds (Cold, hot, salt, pollution) • Existing vegetation • Fire history • Microclimates (where the dog lies is a good indicator) • Natural features • Frost • Views • Problem areas

Site Plan

• Permanent structures • Constructs • Energy flows • Pathways / edges

What food do I like? List family’s likes / dislikes • Vegies • Fruits • Meat

What food can I grow here?

• Available resources • Climate, soils, rainfall • Time • Money • Energy • Commitment • Level of knowledge • Skills • Confidence

What are my needs/wants? • Income • Recreation

Designing for others

inventory what we’ve got evaluation possible uses strategy what we’ll do Landscape, biological resources, soil, climate, plants, animals geology Infrastructure, access, fences, structures, water Household domestic environment – waste systems, heating, lighting Enterprise income business opportunities

design how we’ll connect it implementation how we’ll achieve it who when cost landscape

infra structure

household

enterprise

Starting the design process defining your goals, precisely as possible, then look at your site with these goals in mind take the site characteristics (good and bad) and let your goals arise from these What does this land have to offer me? (sustained ecology model) not what can I make this land do? (exploitation)

RESOURCES

What is a resource? How do we identify these? Research – maps, records of wind, rain, flood, fire, species lists for local area, local people, councils, conservation societies Observation – the site itself, observing different seasons to discover limitations and resources record observations of site using notebook, camera, sketches, trundle wheel etc. these notes are crucial for later design.

Analysis physical factors (natural systems) human factors esoteric factors (feelings) – how do certain places feel, use all senses, note views, sit down, relax, observe. look at patterns like trees bent in the wind, path of the sun, where does the dog like to lie (microclimate finders!!) start to look for certain indicators, especially vegetation, weeds as indicators of drainage, salinity, waterlogging or compaction. note potential problems, boggy areas, outbreaks of noxious weeds, poor soils, erosion.

resources can change over time with good design (eg water storage, windbreaks..)

resource inventory earth biological energy social

rocks clay sand contours mulch rock dust gravel

trees animals mulch weeds forests fungus insects micro organisms humans sun contours water rain wind dams creeks / rivers fire gas animals people electricity schools hospitals shops facilities let$ systems

infrastructure buildings fences sheds personal money observation time energy

Intensive Food Gardens • Nutrition – addresses the question of why? • Efficient Design Strategies ie o minimum path design such as Keyhole for flat areas , o Terraced on slope o Raised beds for ease on the body o Regular pickings close to path o Once only pick out of reach o Bed width can be arms reach x 2 + Long term plants • Stacking o In space o In time • Using Vertical Space • Soil Strategies o Mulch o Compost o Worm Castings o Green Manures • Drainage • Border Design o Mulch and nutrient plant source (Energy Cycling) o Terrace stabilisation o Weed Barrier o Pest Barrier o Pest repellent plantings o Wind or Frost Protection • Integration of Animals into the system o Rabbits, or guinea pigs over worms o Pigeons close by o Chickens

Sheet-mulch, no-dig Gardens

Question to class: Has anyone built a sheet mulch-no dig garden? Get details

Why a no-dig garden? • Simple to build needing little time and few tools and anyone can do it • Its low maintenance because its mulched there wont be a need to weed so often. • Great method to teach community groups as results are quick. This is also a technique you could run a 2 hour workshop on. • Perfect for a weedy patch of land that would take hours to dig.

What are they suitable for? • Annual herbs, vegetable and flowers • Larger shrubs and trees should be planted direct into soil and spot mulched • This type of garden is also too rich for some natives.

What you need (put on a list on wall) • Newspaper, card (not coloured) • Rock dust/wood ash • Chicken manure or blood and bone • Wheelbarrow • Combination of animal manure, straw, green manures • Mulch (straw, seagrass, dry leaves, sawdust, grass clipping, lucerne) • Potting mix/compost (two handfuls per plant) • Border edging (planks and stakes, rocks, logs)

Method • Slash or mow the selected area but leave plant trimmings on the ground • Put newspaper/card to soak in a barrow • Sprinkle blood & bone or chicken manure (one handful/square metre) to break down organic material and encourage worms plus a little rock dust to add essential and trace elements necessary for plant development. Water this area for a couple of minutes. • Place a thick layer of the wet paper (10-20 sheets depending on type of weeds) with a generous overlap. This prevents the germination of weed seeds, encourages earthworms and soil animals and protects the soil underneath. • The first deep layer should be a mix of animal manure, straw, and green manure material such as comfrey leaves, lawn clippings or lucerne hay to a depth of around 2 feet. It is preferable to use cow, sheep, goat or horse manure. If you only have access to chicken manure then sawdust must be added or it should be composted first. This layer will break down as a slow, cold compost and act as a nutrient rich bed for your plants. • Sprinkle with a little more rock dust (1 handful/squ metre) • On top place a 10-15cm mulch layer of straw, seagrass, dry leaves, sawdust or grass clippings. Do not use hay as its seeds will germinate. You can buy commercial mulch eg. Shredded lucerne. • Water thoroughly then for each plant, pull apart the mulch layer and place 2 handfuls of potting mix into the layer below. Plant seedlings or seeds directly into it.

Health and Safety • Hats, sunscreen, boots, gloves • Gloves essential when handling manure • Wash hands well after practical • Safe use of tools

3A & 3B SOILS i) SOIL AND HEALTH • We rely on vitamins and minerals from plants for our health. • Plants can only obtain these if they are present in the soil. • Therefore our health is totally dependant on the health of the soil in which these plants grow. • In explaining, we will be using the analogy of the Soil as a supermarket. In this supermarket, like humans, the plants will require a well built structure, ease of access in the aisles, good ventilation, some nice shelves which are fully stocked so that they can pick and choose as they need. Quite ironic because most supermarket food does not have this choice itself, but rather is force fed a minimal diet of NPK. Like us surviving on just meat and potatoes. You can, but you won’t be very healthy.

ii) STRUCTURE Draw from class: What does an ideal soil contain? 50% Sand, Silt, Clay & O.M. (organisms, roots, humus) 50% Air & Water

PRAC: Pre-collect and observe various soils with class: include sandy and clay specimens. • Students to: o Handle each specimen dry o Observe the jar test of each specimen (ideally prepared at least a day before)

Reality (as observed in PRAC) > usually end up with one extreme or the other. ie. Sandy soil or heavy clay.

Behaviour of particles Pictures of particle sizes drawn to scale 1:500 on board • Sand Coarse 2mm = 10m • Sand Fine .2mm = 1m • Silt .02mm = 10cm • Clay .002mm = 1cm

Explore characteristics with class of. • Sandy Soil o Positives  Good drainage  Easy root penetration o Negatives  Leaches nutrients  Dries quickly • Heavy Clay o Positives  Holds moisture  Contains nutrients and minerals o Negatives  Compact (hard for roots to penetrate)  Moisture not available

Discuss methods of correcting ie. • Adding clay to sand, and vice versa. • Dolomite (adheres clay particles together forming larger particles) • Quickly obvious only possible on a small scale

The ANSWER ORGANIC MATTER [Mulch, Compost, Plant roots ( Supermarket materials)] + SOIL LIFE (The Supermarket builders) = HUMUS (builds the soil into a beautiful spongy supermarket, fully organic, no packaging, local produce and smells great.)

iii) HUMUS Characteristics: • Air Pockets o Forms a spongelike consistency. o Roots Won’t shop without good ventilation, roomy aisles o Root tips wear out if too compact. • Holds Moisture o Is a colloid, like Jelly. (holds moisture until taken up by plant roots) o Because of spongelike consistency, it holds moisture, whilst allowing drainage, meaning soils don’t get waterlogged. • Binds Soil o Flocculates and binds particles together. o Creates good crumb structure o Prevents erosion • Holds nutrients and minerals o Forms colloids, which are cations (Negatively charged particles) PIC. o Holds nutrients, which are positively charged, indefinitely until plant wants. o Root tip has a stronger bond and exchanges sugars for the required nutrients.

Hence humus = shelves in our supermarket, with roomy aisles in between. The above 4 points have remedied the negative aspects for both the sandy soil, and the heavy clay.

How do we add Humus? ORGANIC MATTER (OM) which is broken down by Soil Life:

iv) SOIL LIFE • Very important role • Break down O.M. and minerals into plant available form. • Cycle nutrients in the soil • Just ask for air, moisture and food. • Added to: o Small scale through compost and compost tea. o Large Scale  Deep ripping to encourage root penetration (decaying roots = food).  aerated aerobic compost tea (Elaine Ingham: The Soil Foodweb) • Play an important role in aerating the soil also. ie. Worms work like pistons.

So now we have a supermarket built with good ventilation, nice roomy aisles for good access, and the shelves are ready to stock all of the moisture and nutrients that the plants need. It is our job to make sure that the shelves are stocked.

v) NUTRIENTS & MINERALS FOR PLANTS • To be healthy, plants need access to the full range of macro and micronutrients from the soil. (Shelves need to be fully stocked) • Macronutrients: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulphur, Calcium, Magnesium. • Micronutrients include: Molybdenum, Sodium, Boron, Copper, Cobalt, Manganese, Zinc & Iron • William Albrecht found the perfect mineral balance in the soil at which point all plants are said to grow at their optimum. • Some are needed in larger amounts such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium where as others are needed in only tiny amounts, but each plays a vital role in the health of the plant. • If one nutrient is missing or in excess, it can cause others to be locked up and unavailable also. • Deficiencies can be recognised through symptoms on the leaves and stems of plants. There are many good organic gardening books where you can get this info (Jackie French Soil Food).

How do we ensure we have full range of nutrients and minerals in our soils? • Small scale. o If we add a wide range of imported materials we can be very confident that we are providing all that the plants need. Good sources include: o Manures, Food waste, Animal bodies, Seaweed, Water plants, Rock Dust, Urine, Legumes, Dynamic accumulators, The Weeds from that garden.  D.A’s include Yarrow, Comfrey, Tansy, Nettle, Valerian, Dandelion, Borage, Chamomile, Thistles.  Role of Weeds in correcting soil problems. o Process of legumes fixing nitrogen.

• Large Scale o Tests sent to SWEPS Melbourne $140 o Corrective elements are recommended and applied to the fields (to be locked up in organic matter in the soil. o Rock Dust replaces exported minerals.  Rock Dust also affects the Paramagnetic levels of the soil  Paramagnetic levels in soils affect point of wilting of plants.  ie. Soils at Ron’s are naturally 40 points.  On a hot day, the Paramagnetic level drops up to 100 points, reaching –60.  At 0 plants start to wilt.  Some Rock Dusts have a very high level, ie 3-4,000 and when added can bring soil readings up above 100.  Therefore even on the hottest days the plants don’t wilt, remaining healthier, stronger and more productive. o Legumes and green manures. o Animal manures

Humus particles hold onto nutrients which plants need, and pick and choose as needed. Soluble fertilizers on the other hand force feed the plants. They are basically growing hydroponically. We cannot pretend to be able to provide the perfect food that plants need. Only healthy organic soils can do that. Hence the unbalanced nutrients in plants being consumed by humans, for example high nitrite levels in chemically grown vegetables, a poison for humans.

vi) pH pH affects the availability of nutrients in the soil. In terms of our analogy, this is what opens the doors. It is not “something”, but rather it is a function.

Go through Geoff’s Supermarket analogy and refer to Chart.

Where Soil is • Acid o Low pH =  leaching of Heavy metals o Become toxic at 4.5 o Aluminium dissolves at 3.5 = plant poison = all will die. o Red Litmus paper o Sour • Alkaline (blue litmus) o High pH = Heavy metals locked up and unavailable (plants need in small amounts) o Blue Litmus paper o Sweet • Ideal Range with the highest availability of all nutrients is 6 –7.5. This is the range where most veg will grow best. • To correct o If ph Low, add Alkaline materials ie crushed limestone, gypsum, Dolomite, Chalk o If pH high add a high nitrogen source. Sulphate of ammonia is often recommended but this will kill earthworms and other soil life. • Best option again is to add O.M. If soils contain plenty of humus, there will be different pockets of different pH ranges all over the place and the plants can seek out the conditions they desire. • Humus is also neutral, so it takes all soils towards this neutral point. • Limed and Mulched gardens rarely show deficiencies.

vii) ACID & ALKALINE WATER • Acid = soft water, it soaps easily • Alkaline = Hard water doesn’t soap easily • If you come across a spring while digging a dam, grab some soap to check. o Rainwater generally slightly acid 5.5, will soap easily, o Groundwater generally alkaline, therefore doesn’t froth. • As rainwater slightly acid, good to put some limestone, or seafood shells or anything alkaline that will dissolve slowly in tank. Ensures metals are not suspended in the water.

viii) MAINTAINING Once shelves built, stocked and doors open our job • Provide moisture • Maintain structure (ie. Don’t compact the soil) • Recycle nutrients. • Continue adding Organic matter. • Most of these services are provided by nature anyway though. Especially if we have designed no till systems of perennial pasture, no-dig mulched gardens, orchards with perennial groundcovers, forests etc. o Rain provides moisture, held onto by humus sponge; animals and soil life aerate the soil, and the moon’s tides and draining and evaporating water allow the earth to inhale and exhale

PRAC • Students to form small groups and take samples from different places on the site and to conduct a o Jar test; & o pH test

NATURAL PEST MANAGEMENT

Organic Insecticides • Commonly people ask for specific organic sprays for individual pests • This is the last strategy you should be aiming for • Aim of this class is to understand how we can design resilience into our system using natural pest control methods

The role of pests in nature • To remove unhealthy plants from the system

The importance of healthy soils • Healthy soil = lots of microbial life = healthy plants high in sugars = diarrhoea for pests (they can’t eat it or they die)

Process in nature • In a forest, all is in balance, the system is stable • No one pest gets out of control because there are always predators who will eat them • Draw natural predators from class

Providing predator habitat, both wild and domestic • How can we attract these predators into our system? o Frogs – ponds, moist areas o Lizards – logs, rocks o Birds – dense prickly shrubs, water bodies o Predatory wasps and insects – open daisy like flowers, umbelliferae (must provide year round habitat) o Poultry integrated into rotation (vegetables) or integrated into system (orchard) o Dogs to stop wild goats o Cat to catch mice

Crop rotations and avoidance of pest build up in soil. • Commonly first year of organic garden is easy, no pest problems (“What’s the big deal?”) • Year 2 pests have built up in soils and everything gets nailed. • Rotation prevents this build up • Leaf, fruit, root, legume, leaf • Benefits of understanding families due to shared diseases.

Use of microbial compost teas • Build up of beneficial organisms in soil will control diseases • Believed that with compost teas, we can grow tomatoes in the one spot for 100 years • Used as foliar spray it will kill foliage disease such as powdery mildew.

Local seeds, selected for pest resilience. • Local plants become resistant to local pests if the healthier specimen are selected • The danger of introduced hybrids

Companion planting
 This isn’t magic.No true love exists of basil meets tomato, & live happily ever after.
 If it does work, it’s one of the reasons (also weather, watering, soil type, regular picking, overall garden design)
 Specific strategies which work in one place won’t necessarily in another (Many strategies are folklore from USA or Europe, different conditions, different pests)
 Recommend Jackie French’s book – No dogma
 Need to understand the way the pest behaves to be able to design effectively. Are they guided by smell, sight etc • Diversity o smells merge vs monoculture o straight rows are like a landing pad with signage for insects o mixed planting = form of plants harder to distinguish (taller celery hides cabbages) • Pest repellent plants • Masking plants • Decoy plants o Sacrificial planting chosen because they are prone to attack. o Pests nail these first o Collect and throw to chickens for extra protein. • Predator attractors o Daisy like flowers (open form, good vantage point for predatory wasps) o Umbelliferous flowers (carrots, parsley, fennel, etc) • Predatory plants o Ie crotalaria traps nematodes in its roots • Alleopathic and beneficial plants o Some plants excrete growth inhibiting substances o Others growth promoting substances (yarrow, chamomile, borage, nettles, parsley, valarian, nitrogen fixers)

Other repellent strategies • Fishing line over aquaculture ponds to stop birds swooping • Silver wine casks, CD’s - Fruit bats • Sling shot and 12 year old boy • Barriers o Prickly hedges to stop larger animals entering o Vetiver grass stops termites if surrounding stumps

Observation • Regular checking to prevent build up of pests (pick the odd one off) • Don’t react instantly (if predators are present often the pests are gone later in the day) • Helps to build up local knowledge and events over time • Emphasize the importance of existing, traditional knowledge

Traps Some examples: • Yeast solution to attract fruit flies • Clay pot for baboons (can just fit hand in hole, grab onto food & can’t pull out, WHOP!) • Barrel of water with see-saw gang plank for mice • Glass shards and cement in food for rats

Bio-pesticides • Emphasize the use of other strategies first • Harm caused to predators • Compost tea foliage application for fungal diseases • Chilli spray • Garlic spray • Neem • Mix with natural soap so it sticks Penny Woodward’s pest repellent plants

COMPOSTING AND COMPOST TEA

Build pile with the class, talking through the general principles whilst building. Once built, go through the theory.

Compost = a lot of rot or decayed organic matter.

In nature – the decay of vegetation on the forest floor through biological activity is the soil building process.

Compost = the speeding up of this process by providing the perfect breeding and living conditions for microbes which naturally break down organic matter, ultimately into humus.

Smelly pile down the back corner of the yard is not compost – it is an anaerobic, disease breeding mess.

What we are after is: • A pile that heats up to between 65 & 70 which: o Kills weed seeds o Kills pathogens o Doesn’t get too hot (losing volume, wasting nutrients & producing charcoal, rather than compost) • Sweet smelling through process and at the end (like the forest floor) • Breaks down in about 3 weeks • Consistency of light fluffy soil, materials are unrecognisable • Contains a broad range of nutrients in a form available to plants • Contains endless numbers of colloids • Contains masses of beneficial aerobic bacteria and fungi. • Does not lose volume through the process

We mentioned that we wish to provide the perfect breeding and living conditions for microbes to break down the organic matter. What are they?

FOOD • Anything which has lived • A wide variety of materials in the compost will provide a wide range of nutrients for our soils. (nutrient sources talked about in soils are especially good to add) • A mix of carbon : nitrogen materials of 25 : 1 (won’t mean much at this stage) • The nitrogen provides the proteins for the microbes to build their bodies so that they may break down the bulk plant material into humus for us. • All materials contain both carbon and nitrogen but at different ratios o Carbon – Characteristics of materials high in carbon  General rule: brown, dry plant material  If left in a pile will break down eventually, but very slowly  Straw (80:1), woodchips & sawdust (200:1), paper (400:1), rice hulls o Nitrogen – Characteristics of materials high in Nitrogen  General rule, green plant material, fresh manures and recently deceased bodies  If left in a pile will break down quickly and smell terrible (ammonia released)  Nitrogen levels decrease if left in the sun as it evaporates  Green leafy material (25:1), Fresh cut grass (20:1), Cow manure (18:1 decreases as nitrogen evaporates), horse manure (15:1), chook manure (5:1), blood and bone (5:1), Azola (20:1), Roadkill (5:1) • Our aim is to provide a balanced mix of materials high in carbon and high in nitrogen so that we obtain our desired ratio of 25:1 • No need to get out a calculator to figure it out, the best tools are your nose and experience which we will we will get to in the trouble-shooting strategies

OXYGEN • We are building an aerobic compost pile • If not enough present, compost will become anaerobic and smelly, breeding pathogens and disease. • Provided by turning the pile to aerate it or other means to allow oxygen to enter (pipes w holes)

MOISTURE • Microbes need moisture to be able to function • If not enough, there will be little activity • If too much, pile will become anaerobic. • Right moisture level = damp sponge • Covering the pile with a tarp stops evaporation and waterlogging.

INSULATION • Relates mainly to the bulk of our pile • Needs to be at least 1m3

HOW TO BUILD? • As demonstrated o Build it like a lasagne in layers. o ie. straw, manure, water, green material, straw, manure, water….etc) o Ensure each layer is moistened thoroughly.  Aiming for the consistency of a damp sponge  You will find it hard to get it too wet when first building  However, if dissolved manure is running out the base, you’re putting on too much and just wasting nutrients. o Must be at least 1m3 o Turn the pile every 2-3 days o After a few weeks when the pile does not heat up significantly after a turn, it is finished.

TROUBLE-SHOOTING • Pile doesn’t heat up enough, breaking down slowly o Not enough nitrogen material – add nitrogen; or o Not enough moisture – wet layers on next turn (easy to add too much) • Pile gets too hot. Symptoms: o Steaming o It smells o White fungus-like layer about 15-20cm inside pile, which is anaerobic bacteria. o Pile is reducing greatly in size o Cause: too much nitrogen material – add carbon • Wet and heavy o Too wet – Add dry material next turn o Material too fine (ie lawn clippings) and matting together – mix with chunkier material

DESIGN ASPECTS Draw these from the class NEEDS • Access • Storage of materials • Water • Turning (chickens)

FUNCTIONS & PRODUCTS OF COMPOST PILE & RELATIVE LOCATION • Heat (greenhouse, hot water pre heater) • Bares ground (new planting sites) • Leaches some nutrient (above fruit trees)

OTHER METHODS

Chicken deep litter Deep mulch in biologically active soils

AERATED MICROBIAL COMPOST TEA

Aim: To provide the perfect conditions to breed up huge numbers of microbes which are beneficial to the specific crops we are growing.

Findings of Dr Elaine Ingham (The soil food web) • Plants have evolved over millions of years in soils with different ratios of fungi: bacteria. • The plants have developed beneficial relationships in these specific conditions. • They perform better in soils containing similar conditions to that in which they have evolved. • As a general rule: o Soft, herbaceous material is broken down by bacteria.  Many herbaceous plants have evolved in meadows, with other herbaceous plants, where the soils are bacterial dominated o Woody material, high in cellulose is broke down by fungi  Many woody plants (most trees and shrubs) have evolved in forests with other woody plants where the soils are fungal dominated. • How this helps us: o By finding the ratio of fungi : bacteria our crop prefers, we can deliberately breed these ratio of microbes and introduce them to our soils. o Ratio’s can be obtained from the soil food web, and by doing courses with them. o General guide (f:b)  Most vegetables are around 1:1  Vines and shrubs 5:1  Fruit trees – 25:1  Timber trees – 100:1 or over

• What conditions do we need to provide to breed the microbes?

o The existence of the microbes to begin with  The best source is healthy aerobic thermophilic compost.  Must be good quality (what you put in is what you get out)  Compost needs a mix of herbaceous and woody material to ensure both bacteria and fungi are present in sufficient numbers o Moisture (provided by water in which the tea is made) o Oxygen (provided by an aerator) o Food in the tea  This is what determines the end ratio in your tea  Bacterial foods • Molasses • Fish emulsion  Fungal foods • Seaweed extract • Humic acid (worm castings) • Oatmeal

PROCESS AND RECIPE FOR VEGIE GARDEN • Materials o 20Lt bucket o Fish tank aerator o Tea bag to hold compost and castings (stocking, garlic bag) o 2 handfulls of good healthy compost o 1 handful worm castings (contains humic acid) o Food  1/8cup organic molasses  1 Tbls Oatmeal  2 capfulls Seasol • Aerate for 24 hours • Enough for ¼ acre. • Water down and apply

PATTERNS

i). Intro

“Pattern is the most important subject of Permaculture” Bill Mollison It’s what differs to other design systems

Permaculture is a: • translator betweens disciplines. It brings together info from several sources • framework or pattern into which many forms of knowledge are fitted in relation to each other. • synthesis of different disciplines.

There are two aspects to patterning: • the perception of existing patterns and how they function; and • the imposition of patterns on sites in order to achieve specific ends

These may result in: • specific strategies • the fixing of a problem; or • work to produce a local resource

ii). “Work with nature, not against”. What does this mean? Working with the recurring patterns in nature.

• Example of a guild using specifics from the area: o ie. Acacia howittii, sticky wattle (coppiced legume), Wormwood (Pest Repellent plant), Grevillea rosmarinafolia (native insectivorous bird habitat), Calendula (Pest Predator attractor), Lomanda longifolia (evergreen clumping grass barrier) • If we go to next bioregion will be OK but different rainfall, climate, country, culture these species will not grow. It is not so much specifics we need to learn.

• It is the patterns of behaviour, or characteristics of these elements and their interaction with other parts of the whole, which make them useful to us in a design sense.

• An understanding of the underlying patterns that link all phenomena creates a powerful abstract tool for designers.

• Patterning is the way we frame our designs, the template into which we fit our information

• What we want to look for is: o Nitrogen fixer which coppices = nurse tree. o Strong scented plant = pest repellent. o Dense, prickly shrub = insectivorous bird habitat. o Open daisy-like flower = predator attractor. o Perennial clumping grass = creeping weed barrier. • Allows you to go into completely foreign country, culture, language taking only patterns with you and have a very good chance that your guild will work.

• It is this patterning which enables our elements to flow and function in beneficial relationships.

• The pattern is design, and design is the subject of Permaculture.

• How do we find these patterns? Through Observation

iii). Pattern Observation • Observations in Space can lead to design ideas (ie chickens scratch, trees shelter, water erodes) • Can lead to Observation of Events in Time.

Phenomenological (or phenomenological) time central to Aboriginal way of life • ie. Not time as given by clocks and calenders, but life phenomenon, such as flowering of certain plants, or appearance of certain animal indicates the timing of another event. • Through observation, we can build up similar indicators from our surrounding environment. Some examples: o Flowering of certain native flower = time to plant spring vegies (better indicator than calendar) o Appearance of fire flies in Northern rivers = last frost o ‘Aura’ around the moon indicates coming rain o Linda Woodrow keeps a garden diary, entering anything unusual or which stands out in her garden. Recording phenomena allows comparisons between different years, and possible pattern realisation, leading to application or intervention.

• Pattern Observation of Past mistakes allows us to design accordingly. This applies to: o The physical ie. We know that if hilltops and catchments are cleared of trees, erosion will follow. Hence we plant trees to pin the slope. o & Timing of events ie. legume nurse tree chopped one month before spring = too much growth in fruit tree early in season = susceptible to pest attack (sappy growth); or, if I chop back at beginning of growing period, the tree is already in leaf and beginning to flower and fruit when the large burst of feed comes

Social Behaviour There are recurring, predictable patterns in human behaviour. An example is on a PDC, where with observation and experience, a teacher can map almost to the minute how much information can be taken in before a prac is needed, and then a field trip etc. Work groups of three or less are more productive, as no one can hide – accountability Group dynamic changes when numbers go over 25

iv). PHYSICAL PATTERN APPLICATION

• Students to collect a pattern, & bring back to class. • Describe the patterns it contains to the class. • Draw dendritic, spiral, net and mushroom patterns on board • Divide into 4 groups, one pattern each, list where pattern observed (5 minutes) • Each group to present back to class. Draw the major functions of each pattern.

Observing the behaviour of patterns can allow us to design effectively. • Patterns should only be applied if they are functional. • Do not impose designs on the landscape, but rather work with the natural patterns of the landscape. (Mention examples of imposition of patterns and problems which arise ie. Keyhole on hillside) • The form must come from the function. • ie. Balinese rice paddies – terraces accentuate the beautiful lines of nature. • Unimaginative straight line boundaries actually prevent most sensible landscape planning strategies, and are aesthetically unpleasing also. • A far more sensible way to determine boundaries would be around water sheds and water patterning (Hawaiian villagers) • There are certain landscape forms which work beautifully with water harvesting strategies. • For this reason we usually begin our patterning with water and base our other elements around it.

Spirals Can be used to • Create compact forms (herb spiral, mosquito coil) • Create access (road up a mountain) • Guide water and wind flow to serve our purposes (resources accumulation in water) o VON KARMEN SPIRALS  Ie water flow past bridge post, wind over solid object, cloud formation  Spiral ratio = 3.6 : 1 (length : width of each successive spiral)  4-5 repeats  Stream meanders generally follow the same ratio, 3.6 : 1

Explosion, Mushroom • Interchanging o Kidney, Tomato, Tree to sunlight, river to ocean o Access – keyhole garden bed • Interlocking – Tessellation pattern o Tiles, cracking clay, vertebrae • Strong Shape o Tree resisting gravity

Dendritic – Tree Pattern • Observed in trees, lightning, river systems, circulatory system, lung formation, electricity grid, road systems. • Used for collecting or distributing material or information efficiently • Generally 2-3 branches of equal size meet to create each larger group • Length of each order multiplies by 2 • Contains an order of magnitude. o Generally no more than 7 orders exists (5 minimum, 9 max) - ie trunk to leaves or river to upland seepages. Orders of Magnitude are limited by  Viscosity (difficult to separate further)  Inertia • By observing where order of magnitude becomes destructive, we can intervene at these points. ie drains under road to prevent erosion; • General pattern of events model o Point of origin o Spirals our of plane P o Phases of growth T1 – T6 o In streamlines passing through the Origin o Between 2 media M1 and M2 • Point of origin can be for example: o a seed > (roots & branches) o you > (ancestors & descendants)

NET • Resource accumulation • Design applications: o Swales placed over o Net & Pan o Diversity Net o Fencelines productive (reveg strategy on slopes and in desert) o Bamboo to trap flood debris

v). EDGE EFFECT Edge = Boundary Condition

 The surface or interface to either media or systems. ie air, water, fire, earth, but also hot cold acid salty, etc.
 A place for events to locate

Every edge has a unique behaviour and a translation potential At the edge – 2 possible motions or particle flows ACROSS. - In Crossing a boundary:
 surfaces may resist invaders ie. Chemical or social
 nets, sieves or criteria may have to be passed by potential invaders ALONG - In Longitudinal flows:
 Friction or Coriolus (spin) flows cause deflections or turbulence

In nature, edges are often rich places for organisms. On an edge:
  particles may naturally accumulate or deposit (boundary = net or blockade)
  special or unique niches are available in space or time
  Resources of the two or more media systems are available (at or nearby). All edges have some ‘fuzzy depth’ = 3rd media formed.

Edges can: • Be varied by design • Create microclimate (water, colour, suntraps, frost protection, weed barriers) • Trap resources (hedges, fences, habitat provision, village buffalo home) • Encourage / Discourage turbulence (wind, water) • Provide rich habitat (human settlements situated near river mouth) • Provide trade sites (nitrogen fixers, mulch plants, roadside stall) • Provide productive access (keyhole paths, prominent location – maximises edge of social interface)

Compatible and Incompatible Components and Edges

Possible effects (+,+) (+,0) (0,+) (+,-) (-,+) (0,0) (0,-) (-,0) (-,-) ie. no difference in yields (0,0)

Assess the compatibility and design accordingly • Place an intervening, mutually compatible component between two incompatible systems • Select and place components so that: o incompatibility is nullified; o interdependence is maximised • Bill’s Stupidity Principle – “stupidity is an attempt to iron out all differences and not to use them creatively.

Rick’s Simple Pattern Class – Greenhand – length 1 hr 10 minutes • Students collect patterns from nature, and describe to the class • Point out some simple characteristics and similarities between various patterns. • 4 groups, each given 1 pattern, ie Dendritic, Kidney/mushroom, Net, Spiral • Asked to write as many different situations they’ve seen that pattern occur. • Bring it back to the main function of that pattern, and elaborate where needed to point out other uses.

Animals in Permaculture

1) Class brainstorm all possible animals for Pc b) Individually zone them

2) In groups of (3-4) develop a list of useful: a) needs b) functions c) products from animals in general. Show schematic from Intro to PC p.138 to class

Important to assess inputs and outputs. A deficit of inputs creates work. A surplus of outputs creates pollution (unused outputs or products). We will come back to consider some of these in a minute.

Highlight 3 key considerations: (write on board)

3) What are the needs of the system that animals may be able to meet. Before deciding upon animals you want in your system first look at what you are hoping the animal will do – it may be that your love of rabbits does not suit the need to revegetate a block of land. Colemans didn’t decide to be yabby farmers but the swamp lent itself to the farming of yabbies.

Aim in pc design is for free range forage systems – forage animals feed on growing food (oppose to fodder which may be imported). Therefore you need to set up the food system first and have suitable species. Highlights the need for long protracted thought when designing system.

4) What are the needs of the animals Animals are not a means to an end. If their needs are met they will be productive and healthy in the system. Ensure you design appropriate shelter housing and food needs into system.

5) Who is going to take responsibility for those needs – animal husbandry. Really important that the person responsible for the animals have the knowledge and skills to do this. May mean taking an animal husbandry course at your local TAFE – keep in mind the PC principles and ethics – not everything taught you will agree with. For example I agreed with partner to take joint responsibility for 50 calfs this year. I had never raised one before and had no clue of the level of input it required both personal time and financially. Also I wasn’t physically able to do a lot of tasks.

If you don’t want to treat animals with commercial drugs you must know the alternatives else it isn’t fair on the animals (Herbal handbook-write on board)

6) Look in more detail at some of the considerations for introducing animals into PC o What eats it/ is it edible and will you eat it –don’t get attached to your meat chooks or beef cow o Is it suited to climate / locally adapted – don’t stress the animal with extreme conditions. Animals get sunburn. o What will be its impact on environment – a cat may not be appropriate in a wild life area, hoofed animals may compact soil. o What size area will it need – to reduce disease may need to rotate. Particularly pigs, chooks. o Husbandry needs (care, diseases, do a course) who will take responsibility for needs. Do you have finance for vet bills. o What are the tastes, preferences, allergies of owners. o What are breeding habits – rabbits. What will you do with young. o How will they interact with other animals on site o Interactions (both positive and negative with other elements in system) Eg. Bees and children Goats and washing line Dogs and chickens Geese and visitors  Assess animals for primary product value and for value added goods (check understanding) and decide what you are aiming for. May be a niche market (check existing demand and supply)  Is your market culturally appropriate. Feta production..

These factors help decide appropriate animals for your site and needs.

Worms Darwin: “Of all animals, few have contributed so much to the development of the world as earthworms.”

Compost Worms • Different to Pasture worms o Native worms and introduced pasture worms (from Europe) are a good indicator of soil fertility but are not suitable for worm farming in captivity as they do not breed well and manure is too rich o Suitable worms will eat up to their body weight in a day  Red worms (Lumbricus rubellus) are a surface feeder who cant survive hot summers so they rely on eggs to hatch. Eggs can survive years of drought, then hatch after rain.  Tiger worms (Eisenia fetida) o Both tiger and red worms are suitable for worm farms. • The aim of a worm farm

Benefits • Convert anything that lived into valuable fert and soil activator • Castings are a humus colloid (holds moisture & nutrients, soil binding) • Gut contains beneficial bacteria which are: o Soil benevolent o Kill pathogens (antibiotics) o Convert minerals into plant available form o Unlock nitrogen • High in humic acid (feeds soil fungi)

Products • Castings • Juice • Worms

Conditions • Nice even temperature (not in sun) • Adequate moisture (not waterlogged) – hessian to conserve moisture • Burnt by sunlight • Protection from predators

Food • Anything that’s lived (except very acid or alkaline) • The smaller it is the faster it will break down • < 10cm at a time (surface feeders, have evolved on forest floor, too much food = lower layers not eaten and become anaerobic) • Can become acidic – Indicator = tiny white worms (scuttlefly larvae not worms). Linda Woodrow rec 1tsp dolomite / 1kg food added

Breeding Habits • Asexual. ‘Bump’ into each other • Regulate to the size of home and amount of food (Therefore, share around)

Design Considerations • Your Needs and Wants • Location – close depending on scale • Amount of Food available • Space available • Level of Management commitment

Initial Bedding • 50% manure and 50% moist shredded newspaper • Once they have eaten (surface level, like dark crumbly soil) Harvesting Worms & Castings • Expose to light, worms burrow down 1 inch after 5 minutes, remove and repeat • Alternate feeding end (ie bath design) and harvest finished castings

Some design ideas of various scales • Bath • Hessian worm tractor in garden beds • PVC pipes in garden • Animal yard design • Ben Hur (Planter box around fruit tree)

Links to other elements in PC system • Excess manure from larger animals • Poultry feed • Aquaculture feed • Paddock fertilizer • Market gardening

FOOD FORESTS

What is a guild?

A beneficial assembly of species, clustered around a central element to: • Assist health • Aid our management • Buffer adverse conditions

Determine what the restricting factors may be and place elements to intervene.

General Rule: includes a feeder and predator habitat.

Can exist in any zone • Zone 1: Vegie garden (lomandra surrounding, pungent herbs, umbelliferous flowers, chicken tractor) • Zone 2: Banana Circle (bananas, papaya, cassava, legumes, arrowroot, sweet potato, calendula) • Zone 3: Alley Cropping (pathside Gliracidia, main crop, papaya on perimeter, chicken tractoring) • Zone 4: Agroforestry (timber tree, legume fodder tree, pasture, goats)

Benefits

Use examples in a banana circle (pre-drawn) • Different needs for light and root depth • Provide nutrients and mulch o Sesbania, & Crotalaria o Sweet potato living mulch o Bananas • Pest Control o Predator habitat – daisy-like flowers o Pest repellent – Crotalaria and lemongrass • Weed Barrier – reduces weed competition • Support – beans growing up bananas

Can also: • Provide shelter (strong winds, drying winds, sunburn) • Include animals (chickens clean up fallen fruit)

FOOD FOREST

Recreating levels of a natural forest, replacing with useful plants for humans.

Levels in a forest (draw picture) • Canopy • Understorey • Shrub • Herb • Groundcover • Tuber • Climber

Support species

What most don’t understand is the need to get support species up. We must also provide support for these species. Must have your producers • Nitrogen fixers • Phosphorous producers/attractors • Recyclers (comfrey, yarrow, canna lilly) • Insect attractors • Masking Plants • Predator habitat

Our system becomes the same as the simple guilds earlier, with more key elements to support.

Recreate the same layers using support species (draw another forest layer picture using support species, same as previous)

Tropics example • Long term legume tree – 50yrs (Tipuana tipu) • Medium term legume tree – 10-15yrs (Inga spp.) • Short term legume tree – 5-8yrs (Pigeon pea, Cassia, Tophrosia) • Fast legume bush – 4yrs (Crotalaria) • Biennial – 18 months • Annual – 6 months (cow pea)

Designing through time Designing for support species involves planning both in time and space. • Begin with kings and queens (both productive and support species) • Smaller, Understorey Long term crops • Medium term producers – Bananas, Papaya, Cassava • Short term vegies • Mix of legumes (Short term, fast and annuals) • Mix of other support species • Ground cover – sweet potato

Place shorter term trees in niches in time. Ie a 5yr old fruit tree is placed in a position which will be shaded out in five years time anyway. We have used that space productively in the meantime.

Most important is that all the space is occupied • If you don’t occupy it, weeds will • In a spatial race with the weeds. • Stack the shit out of it. • With lots of mulch you can do anything. • You can always take some down, but you can’t put in a five year old support tree. • Legume management: valuable for: o Mulch when precipitation > evaporation o Shade when evaporation > precipitation

As a rule: • Support species: begin with 90% of biomass, ending as 10% • Climax species: begin with 10% of biomass, ending as 90%

Possible in all climates

Tropics • Like a jungle, lots of layers. • Takes about 18 months to establish. • Umbrella shape maximises edge (The densest part of the rainforest is beside a road or stream due to increased sunlight availability. It becomes more open the further into the forest we head.) • Nutrients are held in the biomass not in the soil, due to heavy rains. • Groundcover essential, stops soil washing away. Sweet potato excellent. • Must provide feeders o Nitrogen – legumes o Phosphorus – casuarina, palms (on equator 50% of forest) o Sugar providing mulch – sugar cane, canna lilies o Humus – bananas o Silica - bamboo • Need to allow air flow or else risk fungal diseases • Number of species is limited only by shade (coffee, taro, vanilla)

Mediterranean – Less shade, smaller trees,

citrus, fig, pomegranate, guava, plums, peaches and nectarines at the side (need to be gardened), carob, tamarind, many herbs, sweet potato,

Temperate • More open, like a woodland with brambles and berries. Very open in the winter. • Takes about 8 years to establish. • Start at the top and work your way down to reduce competition • Design for sun angles (don’t block N or NW but do block S & SW) • Many light niches exist, place plants accordingly. ie: o deciduous vines to north and west, o block frost prone plants from morning sun o shade tolerant to south side o evergreen and deciduous trees used to create niches • Consider a range of fruiting times to spread yield over time. • Provide nutrient cyclers (comfrey, yarrow, valerian etc) • Pungent herbs to outside for pest repellence, and to minimise allopathic effects.

Species • C – Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Nectarine, Avoid nuts in general due to growth inhibitors (except almond) • U/S – Elderberries, Tamarillos, Chillean guavas, feijoas (morn + arvo sun) • S – Josterberries, raspberries, cape gooseberry, black, red and white currants, bush tucker plants. Grevillea and Banksia spp for habitat and nutrients • H – Med herbs (sun patches), chives, coriander, garlic, parsley (part shade), fennel, artichokes, perennial leeks, nutrient accumulators • T – Italian & Russian garlic, parsnips, Jerusalem artichokes (on edge as WB - allopathic), hakurai turnip, globe artichokes, • G.C. – Peppermint geranium, Warragul greens, Lebanese landcress, running postman - Kennedia (native legume), Myoporum parvifolum, seaside daisy • Cl - Kiwis (N or W), Passionfruit, Beans, Grapes, Cucurbits, Berries (thornless varieties) • Support species - if using Acacias, source from drier climate to reduce moisture competition (if after indigenous, source from ridges or coastlines)

Desert

• Typical date palm overstorey • Light not an issue in fact filtering may be required • Limiting factors = Moisture o Diversion drains, to swales to store runoff o Must shade the soil o Windbreaks reduce evaporation and sand blast. • Can grow almost anything if you have the water (both temperate and tropical species)

Species • O/S - Date palm (2000yrs old exist, fruit 5yrs, tough, salt tolerant) • C - Olive, Fig, Pomegranate, Prickly pear, Jujube, Apricot, Guava, Citrus (check pH), Pistachio, Tamarind (very hard wood), Carob, Pear (cold), Almonds (cold), Stone pine • U/S – Cactus, crops • Cl - Grape • G.C. - Pig face (potulaca), grape, natal plum • Support spp. – Prosopos, Leuceana, Acacia, Casuarina, Tagasaste, Parkinsonia (Jerusalem thorn), Honey Locust (cool)

Plant Selection

Initially, best way to see what grows in a food forest is to plant the widest range of plants possible.

Look at what grows in the area and sold commercially. Make a list and add a few for diversity and you have a food forest.

Productivity

Jeff’s example of coffee in Bill’s Food Forest at Tyalgum vs commercial growers.

Traditional coffee growing • 1.2m rows, .9-1m between plants • requires brush-cutting and irrigation • In summer every 6-8 weeks requires 600-800g organic fert • Yield: 80kg/acre • Full production in five years, can last 60yrs but usual is 20yrs

Naturally coffee = understorey

Food forest Tyalgum • No weeding or irrigation • Yield = 40kg/acre • By product = 53 types of fruit tree.

The above is an example of maximum diversity.

If people don’t want to hear, minimum diversity example = • 3 legumes L, M &S • 3-4 fruit trees, pretty hardy, down a swale line • coffee understorey • Then rationalise why greater diversity is more stable.

Food Forest Exercise

Cardboard cut outs of elements including short, medium and long term productive and support species. • Long and medium term trees in 3 sizes (S,M,L) labelled with the number of years old it is (ie medium size Avocado at 10 yrs). • Other elements cut to one size with their life span in years labelled (ie Short term productive tree 5 yrs, Annual legume 1yr etc)

Students to arrange elements in a productive use of space through time.

5A TREATING WASTEWATER

Blackwater = sewage Greywater = all other used water

i) GREY-WATER 1. Regulate what goes down the sink. Only put down what you would eat. 2. Direct water into deep mulches, and healthy biologically active soils. 3. Create artificial wetlands • Filter on plug holes • Grease trap, sediment deposition. • Reed bed o Family 7-10 m2,  Gravel depth = 600mm  Water level = 450-500mm  150cm rim around edge to stop water flowing in or out. o Lined with pond liner or strong builders plastic o Inlet and outlet pipe below surface = 90-100mm drainage pipe o 50-80mm gravel surrounding inlet and outlet pipe o 10-18mm gravel for reed bed o Plants to take up nutrients and kill pathogens  Phragmites (common water reed) – kills pathogens  Typha (bulrush) – takes up unwanted chemicals & heavy metals  Juncus  Scirpus • Soakage trench (300 x 300 mm) or storage tank with submersible pump.

ii) NATURAL SWIMMING POOLS • Water circulated by a pump (ie solar) through: o Perforated pipe under 30cm gravel on base o reed bed (remove nutrient and pathogens) o flow forms (to oxygenate) • Avoids carcinogenic chloroforms produced by chlorine. • Must test for E.coli

iii) BLACKWATER

iv) REDUCTION OF WATER USED IN SEWAGE SYSTEMS Hand basin water directed to toilet cystern

v) COMPOST TOILET • Turns waste product into a valuable resource

• Suitable where: o No methane system is used o Sewage is not used in the production of plants o Soils do not suit septic tanks o Cities have critical water supply problems

• Main design features of dual chamber mouldering system o One chamber breaks down while the other fills and vice-versa. o Ventilation pipe painted black o Vent in doors o Material sits on shade cloth on top of reo-mesh. o Use coarse carbon material to stop compaction. (wood shavings better than saw dust)

vi) LARGE SCALE SEWAGE TREATMENT Based on system in Werribee in VIC. (Hussainey MMWB 1978) Best Bill’s seen. 1ha total treatment ponds = 1,800 people serviced 1ha. Settling pond = 3,800 people serviced 2,630 m2 at 1m deep for 1000 people if tank 3m deep = 876 m2 for 1000 people 6 methane generators at 3m x 3m x 50m long will service 1000 people • Anaerobic pond o Yield = methane o Large amount of metals removed as they combine with hydrogen sulphide to produce sulphides (insoluble in water w pH > 7, lime will assist) • Facultative pond (slightly larger than anaerobic ponds) o PHYTOPLANKTON thrive - Algae (fix carbon and release nitrogen) & bacteria (live off oxygen from algae) o Rich algal food = ZOOPLANKTON thrive = waterfowl and fish can flourish. o Zooplankton also remove metals (their bodies made up of large quanitities) o Can be harvested for  Added to poultry feed (in Israel replaces 50% of soybean protein)  Fertiliser for forests and fields (manures and trace elements) • Aerobic o Very little Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) at this point (3-57Mg/L vs 170-570 at the beginning) o B.O.D. due mainly to algae and zooplankton, o 80% have been removed and incorporated into life forms o metal levels now below World Health Organisation standards o Water can be used for irrigation or filtered off to reed beds then streams. • Reed bed o Removes final and any metals left and  nutrient level  heavy metals  Pathogen counts very low including E. coli, Salmonella & Enterococci.

vii) SEPTIC TANK OUTFLOW

Good septic design • Deep plunge is self cleaning • Pipe from chamber 1 to 2 as high as possible, leave 5 cm for turd float

Creative uses: • Infiltration trench with comfrey and trees flanking o Long Trench 50-80cm deep, 50-100cm wide o Plastic half pipe 18cm diameter laid o Backfill with large gravel, plastic then soil o Trees planted 1-2m off both sides (all fruit and nut will benefit) o In clay and clay loams, will stimulate fruit production for 20m without any other irrigation. • Biogas generator followed by pond with aquatic crop (for digestor) to leach field. o 1.5-2m deep, 3-4m diameter. o 20-30cm chute enters at base o Takes septic tank effluent, plus weeds, water weeds, and other organic wastes.

viii) METHANE DIGESTOR

Basic process • Organic matter breaks down anaerobically, producing methane. • Tank must be agitated to o Speed up process of sludge breaking down o Stop scum from settling on pond surface • Needs temperature of 25-30 C • In 20 days, very high % of mass transformed into methane. 1 m3 = 2.29kg of solids • Methane is trapped (weighted cover of plastic, metal, fibreglass), stored and used for: o Running a motor for electricity o Compressed gas for cooking o Compressed gas for running machinery • Does not lose much fertiliser value

ix) FLOW THROUGH SYSTEM Example in Sussex in England. Designer went all around the world to look biogas generators. Used all of the best ideas he saw. This is the best Bill has seen. Design elements • Upside down fibreglass baths with steel bar at each end for weighting (allows easy removal for maintenance) • Baths connected by manifold to Diesel engine • Engine produces electricity for site. • 2 pipes at base of digestor 1. Agitator bubble pipe to stir the tank (from small compressor on engine) 2. Hot water pipe connected to cooling system on motor • Hot water generated by engine can also be stored for other use (ie. washing yards, bathing etc) • Outflow into field with thick straw mulch = millions of earthworms = aquaculture or chicken production. • Outflow alternatives = algal ponds as above

Estimated 5,000,000 in India of this design Top bell is weighted using water and grows fish One family’s waste = 1 light and 1 gas ring If you want more, get a couple of pigs. Ie light in bedroom and 2 rings

x) BATCH SYSTEM Allows periodic addition of materials

WATER

• Water = Source of all life. Without it there is nothing. • Where our design begins, because obvious patterns present themselves. • CONSTANTS o In universe, mainly change is the only constant. When constants observed, are great to anchor onto. Water is one of those constants, it behaves very consistently.  Always level  Flows at 90 to contour o Exercise – Understanding contours  Layered cardboard cutout of landscape illustrating contours • ENERGY CYCLING o Our aim as designers is to design a web from source to sink, to catch and store beneficial natural energies for as long as possible in our system, so that we can put them to work. o Gravity water very valuable – store of water at highest point possible. o Catch at base of property and pump back into system o Irrigation tip  Uniform pipe sizes and fittings means less spares are needed  Example main line under pressure 2” Rural with 1” risers. Low pressure 19mm poly.  Purchase good quality hose and fittings and keep uniform also– huge differences in quality • STORES OF WATER “What are they?” o Dams, Tanks & Soil (swales, ripping, Increased O.M) o Hydrology drawing - 3 pics (forest, cleared and swaled)  Common misconception – streams below will be deprived of water  Reality - in long term, flows more regulated and constant, like in rainforest. • TANKS o Appropriate use in cities – toilets and washing vs garden (regular use during wetter periods = greater yearly holding capacity) o Tank design  Filtering water • Gutter strategies • First flush diverter  Covered inlet and outlet (wire mesh, U-bend)  Interior outlet pipe with float takes water from near surface (less anaerobic)  Limestone or shell in water (hard water better for drinking, soft OK for washing)  Overflow to garden or swale.  Water level indicator • DAMS o Benefits  Much cheaper than tanks per unit stored.  Small scale very different to huge hydro or irrigation dams, as beneficial to life  Give back in 3 ways • All leak a bit adding to ground water • Once full = 100% runoff, adding to catchment • More dams = moderated flow downstream (less floods & droughts) o Types of Dams – Sandpit exercise demonstrating various types of dams  Saddle, Valley/Barrier, Keypoint, Ridgetop, Contour, Turkey’s nest o Size of Dam  Rainfall and runoff in local area  Order of size in relation to catchment • If too large will deplete downstream supply. • If too small will be wiped out by large events. o Placement criteria:  Earth type • Want at least 30% clay • Tests o Jar test o Worm test o Dispersivity test  Grade behind the wall - Pics showing efficiency related to • Slope • Valley shape  Downstream safety of structures and houses (key factor in larger dams)  Height above use points.  Available catchment or diversions • Valley above • Diversions, Swales, Roads  Existing vegetation  Government regulations o Construction  Best advice – ask around for the best local operator. Will cost a bit more but more than worth it in the long run. Huge difference between operators.  Construction of Small Earth Dams – Kenneth Nelson  Top soil removal, keep it pure, not mixed with subsoil  Key • Stops seepage and sheer • at least .6-.9m. • must hit clay (most critical factor in preventing failure) • best clay used to fill  Siphon or base outlet pipe fitted with baffles  Spillway • Always on undisturbed soil – keep clear of compacted wall • Determines freeboard - should be one metre lower than crest. • Flat and wide with shallow slope. • Size - Plan for 1 in 10 year events o Can observe order of size in almost any creek, stepping up the valley sides (Usual flow; Big rain; 1 year event; 10 year event; 100 year event o Observe successful dams in same catchment o BOM for rainfall events  Silt Trap keeps dam clear. 10% of dam size. o Maintenance  Spillway • Keep clear of debris (will cause scouring) • Trickle pipe stops small flows (causes more damage than large flows)  Keep wall clear of trees and plants with taproot. Bamboo great with matting roots.  Keep area above dam forested 30-60m (keep clear)  Fence animals out – provide gravity fed drinking troughs.  Blue green algae – Bale of barley straw (enzyme which stops flowering)  Sealing leaky dams • Gleying o 15-20cm layer of organic material laid on base.  Green cow manure best  Mashed green plant material also OK o Cover with plastic, cardboard or earth (can remove later) o O.M ferments anaerobically & bacterial slime produced o Approx. 1-2 weeks in temperate, 1 day in tropics. o Refill once fermentation taken place. o Permanently seals soil, sand or small gravels. • Fence animals in and feed until manured and pugged. • Bentonite (slippery clay powder derived from volcanic ash) o Works on clay-loam o 5-7cm, roto-tilled and rolled o doesn’t always work, expensive • DIVERSION DRAINS o Gently sloping trenches to guide water for storage, irrigation or drainage o Use of flags for sheet irrigation o Shade with trees to prevent evaporation of irrigation channels. • SOIL STORES • WETLANDS – Their creation and benefits o Catches and stores nutrients (source of wild game) o Regulates stream flows over longer period o Fire control, reflection, thermal mass, beauty • SWALES – back to sandpit o A perfectly level trench (on contour), designed to intercept overland water flow, holding it and allowing infiltration into soil reserves for the use of trees. o Swale = Temporary events to fast track forest systems. o Geoff “Forests systems are sponges and swales are sponges on contour designed to fast track forest systems” o The need for trees  Shade prevents evaporation  Prevents waterlogging  Prevents Salinity  Re-humidifying airstreams o Size and Spacing  General rules • Ideally swale does not exceed crown width • Sandy soil = wider and shallower • Clay soil = narrower and deeper • Shallower slopes = larger, further apart • Steeper slopes = smaller, closer together.  Bill • Upper slopes = every 3m rise • As slopes become shallower = every 2m • As shallower again, no more than 100m intervals  Can also be determined by: • Average large rainfall events and runoff (Book: Small earth dams has good tables for determining) • Intended tree crop size • Machinery width o Pipes under wall can allow drainage to prevent waterlogging o Not suitable on slip country. • BACKFLOODING SWALE o Swale with open end, first flows into dam o Once dam is full, swale begins to rise o Once swale full, overflow onto ridgeline. • KEYLINE PATTERNING o Natural flow patterns of water (valleys wet, ridges dry) o Taking water from valleys to ridges o Deep Ripping • EROSION o Prevention  Slow runoff (drains or ripping leading away from gully to ridges)  Encourage infiltration  Permanent slope vegetation. o Rehabilitation  Contour drains and deep rooted vegetation  Barriers in erosion gullies, lead water out • Small - bale of straw, weaved vegetation in boomerang with reeds. • <3m gabions, logs • Larger requires engineered dam wall] • Centre of wall = spillway or else sides carved out. • Apron below to prevent scouring, and future wall failure. • PUTTING WATER TO WORK o Story of Buffalo enclosure in Aceh.  House built for village buffalo = imported nutrients  Roof-water directed first to tanks, then to floor drains to carry manure down hill (wet season strategy)  Silt trap removes solids, then spills into swale  Swale evenly distributes fertility around hillside for benefit of tree crops.  Dry season = worm farms o Use of Water Movement for depositing materials  Larger object = slower water = smaller material  Smaller object = less reduction in water speed = larger material • ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS o Protection of water courses  Revegetation to 30m either side  Rehabilitation of erosion gullies

5C EARTHWORKS

i) PLANNING EARTHWORKS It’s best to plan all aspects of the earth-moving process before the machines or labourers arrive. 1. Make initial decision of placement of dam, swale, house site drain etc, using contour map and plan if needed 2. Test soil by auger holes, soil samples and soil pits to check if suitable for your needs (ie. Dam needs at least 30-40% clay). Seek professional advice or do more research before deciding conclusively. 3. Peg out site using a level (laser level, dumpy level, a-frame, bunyip level) 4. Plan a space to store all the TOPSOIL. Never allow it to be mixed. Remove carefully to be returned later as growing medium 5. Have on hand as many seeds and plant material as is needed to immediately cover disturbed soil.

ii) PLANTING AFTER EARTHWORKS Two main reasons we do this as soon as possible 1. to prevent erosion 2. to prevent invasion by unwanted volunteer plants

Some good mixes include: • Sunflower or mixed bird seed • Parsnip, radish, daikon radish, which spike the soil • Roots of comfrey, sweet potato, tumeric, horseradish • Divisions of grasses: bamboo, pampas, lemongrass, vetiver , agave, aloes. • Cuttings that readily strike, ie mulberry, willow, poplar, echium • Tubed seedlings of acacia, tagasaste, eucalypt, coprosma,

These plants will out compete invaders. Mark perennials with a stake so they can be easily found the next year.

If very steep: logs, branches, grasses on contour. Soil, manure, detritus collects. Larger trees such as acacia planted at the top of the slope will drop seed and colonise.

iii) SLOPE MEASURES Proportions, ie 1:2 (always rise: run) Gradient = rise/run as a % ie 1/2 x 100% = 50% Angle (measured at base of slope). ie 45 = 1:1 or 100%

Different materials have different holding capacity when cut. Some can be steep which hold well, others shallow because they are prone to collapsing. Jar test. Gravels (1:1½ or 66% or 37) Free drained clay (1:2 or 50% or 26.5) Sands (1:3 or 33% or 18.4) Wet clay and silt (1:4 or 25% or 14)

When planning cuts 1. Ensure good diversion drain at top. 2. Concave the slope, (which will happen naturally anyway)

iv) LEVELS AND LEVELLING PRAC using different levels available. • Dumpy or laser if available, • A-frame (construct and use) • Bunyip level.

v) TYPES OF EARTHWORKS Banks • Cheaper to construct than to step or retain. • If dished, will remain stable at greater slopers than straight cut (already created shape of post slump) • Problems occur from excess water. Ensure drainage above, divert to useful site. Benching • A flat, near contoured cut made in a slope • Roads, house sites and helpful in long term forestry every 100m on slope. Terracing • Benefits o Easy crop access on slopes o Easily controlled irrigation o Minimal soil loss due to overland flow (stagger path ends) o Potential gain in silts and nutrients in irrigation and leaf fall o Becomes worthwhile at 10-18 degrees o Terrace = annuals, slope between (< 2m high, 3:4 max) = perennials

vi) EARTH CONSTRUCTS Making good use of soil removed from excavations (ie for ponds) Banks raised by machines can serve the following purpose: • Shelter for house and fields (deflect hot dry winds) • Plant sites for windbreaks (on crown and lee side) • Walls of houses and barns • Fireproofing (dugout with tin and 1-2’ earth on top) • Noise deflection near roads or airports (foliage doesn’t do much) • Tracks and plant sites in marshes and clay sites prone to flooding. Including islands and mounds • Patterns to deflect and direct wind and water to storages or energy systems. • Flood or tide control systems • Earth ramps and stands (loading ramp) • Earth walls or ha-ha fences.

vii) MOVING OF THE EARTH Blade machines: • Levelling house sites, benching, terracing, side-cutting roads, and pushing up earth banks. • Can be mounted at the: Front (Bulldozer), Centre (Grader), or Rear (Tractor) • Ideally blade can: o lift (for piling up or levelling loads) o tilt (for cutting drains), & o angle (for side casting on long runs) • Bulldozer o Greatest use in roading and dams o Can work well on steep and rocky slopes o Excellent to  put up, roll solid and spread earth;  dig large shallow holes  move small hills  bench • Grader o Better than bulldozer for long flat runs o Goof for long drains of shallow angle. 4 in 1 Bucket machine • Ie Bobcat. Is a bridging machine between blade and bucket. Excellent finishing tool. Bucket machines • Loading buckets, attached to tractors, great for use where loose material needs to be picked up and loaded to trucks (4m reach often) Can lift and tilt only, not swivel • Excavator or Swivel or Scoop bucket. o Good for moving earth short distances (limit = reach of arm before having to move). And digging trenches. o Often have a blade also for levelling. o Works well in  Drains (building and cleaning)  Marshes Auger • can be fitted to hydraulics of tractor, bobcat, excavator etc. (fenceposts etc) Compacting • carried out by tracks, rollers or buckets on machines or by compacting machine. • Compact only 15-30cm of soil at a time. Even largest machines cannot do much more than this.

viii) EARTH RESOURCES

May come across valuable resources whilst excavating

Clay: • Bricks • Sealing dams and ponds • Pottery Sand: • Yellowish, have enough calcium to combat acidity. • Black can be used to generate heat • White can be used to reflect light to houses. • Sharp sand can be used in potting mix • Fat sand (containing clay for building ovens) Gravels: • Heaped up makes good roads and drains • Sharp gravel good for concrete. • 19mm angular best for heat stores. • Reed bed filtration system Shingle: • Good under roads as a base • For drains • As a course filter Boulders: • Course Mulch • Wildlife refuge • Heat stores in walls • Gabions

Indication of the geology of the landscape. Over time, as you observe more of these cuts, will gain more and more confidence that you can predict the ideal placement of various elements on similar sites.

AQUACULTURE

Production from water

Commercial Growing Procedures – pellets from ground up fish. (high energy) Begin with light on water, hanging meat Insect Feeders Algae Eaters Plant Feeders 3 layers, not competing Chinese also use 4th, insect and plants, moving water.

Creating niches, hiding places
 creating benches, water plants
 small fences, allows babies through, not adults

Productivity relates to Edge not volume

Water plants
 edible varieties for each niche ie. kang kong around edge, watercress (high iron and Vitamin C
 planting in pots, ie water chestnuts (manure or compost, rocks on top)

Fruit trees overhanging feed fish.

Duck House above water can feed system. Chinese use to recycle their shit (Rick’s story of providing beautiful toilets to attract passing cyclists)

Nutrient Source Excellent source of nutrient for garden
 water for fertigation
 excess water plants for mulch
 soil from base of pond for gardens.

Chanampa Systems • Most intensive production system we know of • High output, but high inputs also • Great for small areas • Elements o Land (trees, shrubs, vegies) – excess feeds pond o Water (water plants, fish, ducks), o Over water (trellis, boat to harvest) o Soil dug out yearly from pond base and placed on land.

Variations on Chanampa type thinking o Pond at end of garden, pathways dug to 500mm, gravel filled, o Nutrient rich water feeds garden beds. o Mulch source close by (water hyacinth, azolla etc).

Integrated Rice, Duck, Azolla and Fish farming.
 Sow Rice and Hatch ducklings at the same time
 At 7-14 days transplant rice, whilst ducklings are brooding
 Release ducks 1 week later (too small to do any damage
 Ducks eat weeds (but not rice as high in silica and feels hard), pests, fertilise soil, muddy the water.
 Release Azolla when weed levels down for extra duck food.
 We need to provide fencing from predators, and small space of land and shelter.
 Remove ducks when rice coming into ears.
 Can use now fully grown ducks to tractor the next paddock, then sell or eat.
 Fish can fill another niche (need a large bathtub size pond to retreat to in warmer weather)

CLIMATE

Definition of climate zones (Mean temperatures) Tropical: No month below 18/C mean temperature • True definition is Sun is directly overhead for at least one day a year (Tropic of Capricorn and Cancer) Sub Tropics: Coolest month  0/C, but 18/C • Design includes both tropical and temperate elements Temperate: Coldest month  0/C Warmest 10/C Polar: Warmest  10/C Or in perpetual frost  8/C Arid Mean rainfall < 500mm Desert Rainfall < 250mm

Important to understand a wide range of strategies with wide acceptance that world climate variation is increasing (more extremes including  floods, droughts, temperature extremes, longer and intense periods of wind)

Despite being in a certain climate zone, there can be periods of differing conditions which must be identified, understood and designed for. For example even in the wet tropics there can be periods of Aridity.

Precautionary principle

The overall concept of climate is too broad and ill-defined to use in a site analysis and design. Instead we define climate on the site by identifying the three major influencing factors: precipitation, wind and radiation. We then study them independently to see how they are destructive or beneficial on a site, and how they interact and follow cyclic patterns.

IMPORTANT CLIMATE FACTORS WHEN DESIGNING

Check data on average rainfall, temperature, and wind speed and direction for the region (B.O.M)

Ascertain the general hardiness zone for plants and animals. This is based on temperature, with frost being the limiting factor. Make a survey of plants in the area, making special note of those that are “marginal”; what is the technique or microclimate that allows them to grow?

PRECIPITATION

Find out about: • Flood locations and periodicity (large flat expanses next to rivers indicate flood zones. ie. Don’t put septic tanks there. Observe and build up knowledge of other plants growing well in similar conditions.) • Rain intensity • Temperature extremes • Seasonal rainfall pattern • Allow for extremes when designing Consider total precipitation (snow, hail, rain, fog, condensation & dew) so your design can include ways to trap and store moisture (dry climates) and dispose of too much moisture (wet climates)

RADIATION EFFECTS

On latitude and slope. • Sun directly overhead, clear day = 22% reaches Earth (rest reflected and absorbed in atmosphere. • At poles, sun comes in at 5 & as little as 1% reaches • South slope has less sun units hitting same area of ground. PIC

Consider light availability: • In foggy areas (light becomes limiting factor for flowering plants). • I n low (equatorial) latitudes, too much light and extreme heat can decrease photosynthesis due to light saturation and  CO2 availability. Shade with 50-70% light penetration can increase plant bulk and production in some plants.

LANDSCAPE EFFECTS

Continental climates mean more temperature extremes Maritime climates buffer severe heat or cold.

Altitude effects: approximately 100m altitude = 1 Latitude. If hills and flats present, a variety of plants can be grown.

Valley Climates • Cold air falls by night • Warm air rises by day (soils dry, strong winds may be generated)

Note where frost is produced (hollows, flats, large clearings)

Determining site specific wind factors • Landscape ie. Winding valleys, can influence prevailing wind direction. • Note tree flagging (direction of persistent winds.) • Set up stakes with ribbons to indicate.

House site • On thermal belt if possible o Cool air drains to valleys below, cold montane air above = thermal belt in the middle o Thermal belt height differs in different areas  Hill and Mt country could be 1000-5000m  Lower hill slopes could be 100-200m  Desert could be 10-15m • Use light and radiation to best effect (especially in temperate and cool)  Situate house to North  House next to water source for reflection.

Observation also plays a big role. With experience, established plants will give you a good indication of the rainfall and climatic conditions you are in, and suggest other species which may be beneficial to introduce.

URBAN STRATEGIES

Property Design • Lots of opportunity for creativity and ingenuity

Growing food • Choose plants you are certain to eat, and use regularly. Herbs if space limited • Garden Beds - Build up where paved (any container, toilets stacked up even) • Energy efficient design (Plant stacking and tiering of beds, minimum path) • Fruit trees (miniature fruit trees, espalier, multi-grafted varieties, in tubs) • Use all vertical space (hanging baskets, pots on walls, hinged trellis) • Reflection (white walls, mirrors where tall buildings surround) • Sprouting seeds • Old lady’s property next door who can’t garden any more.

Animals • Worms for composting (good solution for steady small supply of material) • Small quiet animals preferable (ducks, bantem chickens, quail, rabbits, guinea pigs, pigeons, bees) • Aquaponics (fish water circulated through baths with very productive veggies growing)

Water Use • Catch roofwater and runoff o Space saving tanks o Rubble filled swales double as contour paths o Ponds provide aquaculture opportunity, habitat and microclimate • Recycling grey-water • Reduce by using a compost toilet • Use as much as you like on home gardens (water use in heavily mulched home garden is far more efficient than industrial agriculture)

Reducing energy consumption • Grow your own food • Wear a jumper • Retro-fit houses o Greenhouse and shadehouse attached o Solar panels o Solar hot water o Insulation o Increase thermal mass (water bodies) • Recycling (clothing, toys, sports equipment etc)

Resources • Food wastes • Autumn leaves • Newspaper • Lawn clippings (Bill’s story of lawn mower in Rockport Massachusetts). • Microclimate • Hard Rubbish collections

Waste minimisation • Reducing landfill o Recycle all organic wastes o Purchasing decisions (wholefoods, durable items)

Town Planning Opportunities • Waste utilisation (sewage = biogas, composting, • Utilise community spaces (street plantings, parks, gardens, industrial areas): o Fruit and nut trees o Urban woodlot (income source for council vs energy sink) • Planning for pedestrian, bicycle and public transport

Community Strategies • Community gardens. Provide opportunities for: o Growing space for those in high rise/ commission flats (often migrants) o Common space but individual plots and equipment commonly used o Common space and interest where people meet (Multicultural bonding)  Exchange of seeds, plant material, recipes etc o Suitable where land is scarce o Must gain a long term lease, no less than 30 yrs • City farms. o Formed when 100 or more families lobby local or state authorities. 1-80ha preferably with a building. Best Bill’s seen are in England (lots of animals) o Some common activities, most income generating:  Community garden allotments (if space allows)  Demonstration garden and energy saving techniques  Domestic animals for demonstration and rare breed stock (often looked after by children)  Recycling centre for equipment and used building materials  Gleaning operations of surplus backyard street and market garden produce.  Plant nursery & retail sale of seeds, books, plants, tools  Children and adult activities: seminars, demonstrations, training programs, educational outreach to develop community skills.  Technical teams to provide home energy investigation and fitting of homes with weather stripping for doors and windows  Information centre on food preparation, insect control, nutrition, home energy topics etc o Some essentials for success  Lies in an area of need (poor neighbourhoods)  Large local membership  Offers a wide range of social services to the area • Child-care (with responsibilities on the farm) • Adult education and opportunity o Funding:  Many have become self funding from sales of g & s with modest membership fees.  Government grants sometimes needed in the first few years of setting up. • CSA (suitable where high-rise and rental accommodation exists) o Allows people connection and relationship with their food source o Farmer gains income security, more control over pricing. • City orchards (central meeting point where excess produce is dropped off and received) • Organic farmer’s markets • School Gardens • Permablitz

Designer Checklist

A: Client Questions

Client Name:

Address:

Area of land:

Security of tenure and predicted term of client on site:

Client brief:

Budget for a) implementation b) maintenance

Plans/drawings available?

People on site: Age: Relationship:

Occupation/skills: Disabilities: Weekly input:

Lifestyle:

Eating habits:

Recycling habits:

Pets & their needs:

Buildings and their current use:

Services to site (sewerage, septic, power, phone, water):

Sources of heating, hot water and cooking & level of use:

Water catchment, size and quality:

Onsite transport and machinery:

Access routes and parking for transport and deliveries:

Energy flows of people on site (use of external doors, paths, buildings etc.):

Site history:

Known issues with land (ask neighbours):

Local services/resources (tip, shops, schools, saw mill, public transport)

Clients experience/attitude of incorporating animals:

Level of food self sufficiency desired:

Need of privacy (neighbours) /views:

Legal constraints (rights of way, zoning, planning restrictions):

Other constraints (sacred sites, archeological, noise/visual pollution):

What is land use in local neighbourhood?

Priorities:

Other client considerations (inclusion of artwork, esoteric uses etc):

B: Physical information to obtain on site

CLIMATE Aspects Humidity Wind rose Cool breezes Hail Frost TOPOGRAPHY Contours Drainage Gradients Key lines Geology WATER Rainfall Springs/rivers Water table Dams Bores Roofs Quality Pollution sources Flood damage FAUNA & FLORA Communities Edges Stability Wildlife corridors Weeds Exotics Microclimates Health Preservation order FAUNA Water fowl Grazing animals Feared & painful Creatures Native animals Introduced animals MICROCLIMATES Niches Soils Temperature Vegetation Shelter SOILS Depth PH Types Vegetation Organic matter Fertility FIRE History Season Intensity Frequency Direction PERMANENT STRUCTURES On plan Efficiency Type &use Retrofit Condition Extensions etc ACCESS People/vehicles Direct Parking Condition Gradient Deliveries Maintenance Usage SERVICES Sewerage Septic Telephone Electricity Water Gas SITE CHARACTERISTICS Views Pollution Special places Building sites Privacy needs History Recreational OFF SITE CONSTRAINTS Population Pollution Future conflicts Schools History Shops Character of area

MICROCLIMATE “The summation of environmental conditions at a particular site as affected by local factors, rather than climatic ones” Rosemary Morrow

By observing existing microclimate, and creating through design, different niches, opportunities and more favourable conditions present themselves.

Make observations. Walk the property lots at different times. ASK WHY? (warmer, cooler, brighter etc)

LIGHT SPECTRUM • White reflects 96% of light. More than a mirror • Black is hot because it absorbs all spectrum • Red generates heat ie. It reflects heat, it’s cool underneath ( o under red foliage can be 20 cooler. Red grape over a pergola. • This phenomena is utilised by plants o Where hot > silvery grey foliage (saltbush in desert, reflects up to 85%) o Where cold > dark foliage (reflects as little as 2%) o Design uses  light coloured foliage in suntrap to intensify sun.  white walls to increase light in courtyards  dark surfaces to store more heat ie. Bare soil for tom’s early spring

THERMAL MASS • Dense Material stores and retains heat. (ie. brick, rock, soil, water, clay) • All temperatures aim to equalise – therefore heat released. • Examples o Sep Holtzer = pumpkins on Swiss alps o Bodies of water regulate temp [draw 1) coastal regions & 2) Geoff’s dam] + reflection & evaporation.

EVAPORATION & CONDENSATION • Evaporation causes heat loss locally o Mediterranean example (pond, fountain, unglazed pots with plants) • Transpiration is the same – trees regulate temperature (ie hot day in forest) o Draw air from ferns on South side of house = cool air. • Condensation = heat gain locally (as airborne moisture condenses on trees at night, air temperature rises in local vicinity. Forested slopes above house regulate temperatures • Canopy also act as an insulating layer.

INSULATION Material which does not readily conduct heat. = air layer trapped

HUMIDITY • Transpiration =  moisture in the air. • Wind carries this away. • If trees are clustered, moisture remains as can’t be blown away • Therefore windbreaks can  humidity therefore  irrigation needs

WINDCHILL • Example of standing in snow with a t-shirt. No problem until wind blows • Example of cows in paddock. Patches in windbreak = wind tunnel

CREATING HEAT The warmer it is the greater the amount of growth (as long as moisture available) • Microbes in compost can heat greenhouse. • Animal bodies

FINAL EXAMPLE Suntrap with pond, covers broad range of topics mentioned. • Light & reflection – light foliage on suntrap & water. • Thermal mass – water and earth bank • Humidity – transpiration + evaporation, protected from winds • Frost protection.

Allow the possible growth of plants from the next climate zone.

8A & 8B TREES

i) TREES & THEIR ENERGY TRANSACTIONS WIND EFFECTS Buffer Wind • Forest edge species have thick sturdy trunks • Turn kinetic energy into compression and tension wood • If removed, other trees will fall, as not adapted to windy conditions. • These species also have light coloured undersides to reflect light Remove aerosols and very fine dusts (within a few hundred metres) • Edge species also adapted to salt and dust abrasion. Ie strand trees such as palms, pines and casuarinas. Provide a nutrient net Also actively mine the rock base and soils for minerals.

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS Evaporation causes heat loss locally (trees cool air by day)

Condensation causes heat gain locally (warm air at night) • Moisture needs a surface to condense on. • Leaves provide that surface.

PRECIPITATION EFFECTS Basic effects of trees on water vapour and windstreams

• Compression and Turbulence. o Wind travelling over compresses to 20 times the height. o Rows of Trees > 12m can cause rainfall parallel downwind (Tests in Holland and Sweden = 40 of down wind rain caused by this phenomena

• Condensation Phenomena o In evening, warm landmass creates onshore winds (carrying moisture) o Moist air flows over leaf surfaces, condenses and forms droplets. o Condensation drip = up to 80-86% of precipitation on upland slopes of islands and sea coasts o Eventually = cause of rainforest in Tassie, Hawaii, Chile, Oregon, Scandanavia

• Rehumidification of Airstreams o Trees = cloud makers  Evaporation from leaves  Transpiration o Of rainfall that hits the forest 75% returned to the air.  25.6% evaporated from leaf surfaces  48.5% returned by transpiration  25.9% as groundwater runoff o Design strategies are obvious and urgent – save all forest that remains, and plant trees for increased condensation on sea-facing slopes.

• Effects on Snow and Meltwater o Trees job is to  Entrap snow at edges of clumps  Hold 75-95% of snow in shade  Melting delayed 210 days compared to bare ground  Tree trapped snow (most melts) vs bare ground (sublime direct to air)  Groundwater therefore is far greater.

• Provision of Nucleii for Rain o Upward humid spirals of air form forest carry insects, pollen & bacteria. (indicated by birds spiralling up catching insects). o Most important = pollen, fine dusts and bacteria = cloud seeding

Bill’s Summary All of these factors are clear enough for any person to understand. To doubt the connection between forests and the water cycle is to doubt that milk flows from the breast of the mother, which is just the analogy given to water by tribal people. Trees were “the hair of the Earth” which caught the mists and made the rivers flow.

HOW A TREE INTERACTS WITH RAIN

BARE SOILS • The impact of droplets carries away soil. • In Australia 80-90% is runoff or pan evaporation o Carries off nutrient and silt to sea or inland basins. • When land cleared, runoff increases, dam fills, temporarily happy, however: o Dams silt up o Rivers eventually cease to flow o • Flood and Drought the result, not a long-regulated steady supply. (As seen in water session)

PROCESS IN A FOREST SYSTEM • Tree canopy shelters and nullifies the impact effect of raindrops. = fine mist • Slight silt loss occurs, but is exceeded by the creation of soils by forest. • Light rain = little penetration beyond canopy. Creates film on leaves. Tree absorbs what’s needed, remainder evaporates. • Where no rain penetrates = INTERCEPTION • Water that penetrates = THROUGHFALL (usually 85% rainfall in humid l/s) • Throughfall = not just rainwater – also contains plant cells and nutrients (much richer brew)

ii) WINDBREAKS & SHELTERBELTS

POROUS WINDBREAK: • Allow 40% of wind through (stand at right angles to check) • Filtered, Sheltered effect (Too dense = similar to dumper wave) • Ideal for crops, pasture livestock etc

DENSE WINDBREAK • For strong winds • Provides full protection to valuable assets (stock, house etc.), but area reduced. • Angle leading edge at 65 (ie. Small, medium, large shrubs) GENERAL WINDBREAK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS • Situate 90 to prevailing winds • Note tree flagging (direction of persistent winds.) • Full protection to 10 x Height • Partial protection to 25 x Height • If out in the open, Length of W.B. must be at least 20 x Height • Keep stock out (create wind tunnel) • Complex net design for variable wind.

EFFECTS • House heating costs reduced 20-30% in moderate to severe winters. • Reduced productivity on edge (competition), BUT, overall production  at least 10% • Crops and Fruit o Blossom and fruit set (production  25%) o  evaporation (hot winds o abrasion = leaf damage = insect attack • Livestock o Pasture production  10% o Shade = improved feed conversion (cows won’t ruminate over 32C) o Cold wind protection   energy requirements   death of newborn (sheep example. Feed mum next to w.b; shear mums just before birth) • Other effects (remember to make w.b multifunctional) o  pest transport;  spray drift;  predatory birds;  fire protection;  wind erosion;  stock feed;  Fertiliser and mulch. • Multiple Functional Design: eg. mulch (casuarina), bee nectar (dogwood), sugar pods (honey locuste, carob), fodder (leucaena, tagasaste), pest predator habitat (dense flowering native shrubs), wildlife habitat (zone 5 planting)

iii) ALLEY CROPPING Desired crop interplanted with compatible species for beneficial interconnection. ie. • Wind protection • Chopped for mulch or fodder • If a legume = nitrogen source • Possible examples: o Sandy <400mm (ie. Wheat country) Tag at 2m tall, 25m spacing o Tropics main cropping. Glyricidia on bed edge

iv) ORCHARDS • Interplant Nitrogen fixers for mulch and fertiliser. • Permanent groundcovers (comfrey, nasturtium, Warragul greens, sweet potato) • Maximise flowering components to attract pollinators and predatory insects (umbelliferous and compositae varieties), insectivorous birds (kniphofia spp, fuschia spp, echium fastuosum, salvia spp, dense prickly native shrubs) • Pest repellent and masking strategies. • Use of animals ie geese, tethered goats, pigs, chickens, ducks

v) FROST • Comes on clear still nights • Frost moves like treacle • Can be directed and drained using dense foliage • Can also be dammed (ensure drainage)

If too cold, plant cells freeze and explode. Frost sensitive plants limp in morning. Not much you can do but keep it off.

Some cases, frost settles on plant, but not cold enough to explode. Damage is from Sun (magnifying glass effect). Dense planting to East keeps sun off until ice thaws.

In minimal frost areas, plant light canopy trees in the garden for protection (keep rapid cooling of the Earth to a minimum)

vi) FIRE PROTECTION • Generally in Australia, point to centre of country = fire danger direction. • Burns uphill fast, downhill slow (“put backpack on and piss on it” Bill.) • Protect valuable infrastructure with o Fire breaks ie: Roads, Marsh, Dams, Orchards, Short grazed strips, o Fire retardant species (red tipped photinia, coprosma, agapanthus) o Fly wire under house eves. o Balls for gutters and fill with water o Sprinklers from dam or tank with Diesel pump (not electric) • In ironbark country (burns every 30 years) need a bunker (hole in ground with narrow entry, tin roof, 1-2’ soil covering.

vii) FODDER Mentioned in Alley cropping and windbreaks Can be planted for: • Quantity o Seasonal Supplement o Drought fodder bank • Quality o High protein supplement (often ripen late summer = autumn feed low) o Small amount of green =  dry feed consumed • Examples: o Wet temperate >600mm  Tagasaste (dry leaf = 24% protein)  Willow (fast recovery from coppice)  Poplar  Honey Locuste (17% protein. 1pod/cow/day) o Dry temperate 300 – 600mm  Tagasaste  Salt bush  Mulga (Acacia aneura)  Carob  Acacia saligna o Sub tropics  Leuceana o Monsoons  Sesbania Many = nitrogen fixers. Therefore, when browsed will feed tree species beside (ie. Windbreak, timber, orchard etc)

viii) AGROFORESTRY Quote from David Holmgren “In a low energy future, the wealth of nations will be measured by the quantity and quality of their forests. Timber will once again replace steel, concrete, aluminium, plastics, and other composite materials as fossil fuel energy decreases. This will only be possible if we grow these forests at least a generation in advance. Few realise that it will be the capacity of forests to store carbon as structural timber and fuel which may allow humanity to be sustained by renewable resources in a low energy future.”

PERMACULTURE FORESTRY Diverse planting for stability • Yield spread over time • Reduced risk of disease decimation • More options at market.

PLANTING Ripping and mounding = cost effective planting method Reduce competition in first year, especially grass • Growth difference = 1 vs. 5 yrs • Plant out with green manure =  weed competition &  fert

WIND EFFECTS Trees in consistant wind form tension and compression wood. When milled, timber warps.

PRUNING • Aim = straight, knot free timber to 6m (ultimate). Far more valuable if managed. • When young, form pruning required, to encourage a straight, central leader. Prune Branches: o Forking at the top (choose straighter of two, or leave upwind branch) o At a sharp angle o Over thumb width. • Once trunk = 8-10 centimetres. o Remove branches up to this point. o Trunk will grow over branch stubs = knotty core within, clearwood surrounding.

COPPICING & POLLARDING Coppicing: cutting plant near ground, which then re-shoots. If for timber, manage 1 of the shoots as for young trees. Pollarding: same as coppice, but leaving a pole 3, 4, 6, 10m which will eventually be harvested for timber. Top section = mulch, fodder, firewood etc in meantime.

DESIGN POSSIBILITIES • Woodlots: o close spacing encourages trees to “fight for light” (straight form). o Must be thinned (crown:stem = 15:1) o Main yield is at harvest time. • Wide-spaced Agroforestry: o Trees placed at desired end spacing o Interplanted with n/f fodder trees for stock o Pasture in between rows = stock feed = constant but diminishing yield through time. • Discuss how each has the same desired end result, but different methods of getting there. • Managing native forests o View of Tim Winton and David Holmgren. o Selectively logged this can be the most sustainable form of forestry. o Natural forest ecosystem still supported and intact. o Must keep yields within the bounds of what the ecosystem can manage (5% growth/yr)

SOURCES OF INFORMATION Jeff Nugent: Permaculture Plants Rowan Reid: Agroforestry The powerline book (contains heights, effects on drains, fire retardant spp, wind etc)

ix) FIREWOOD • Anything that grows fast, ie. Not red gum and mallee roots. • Coppiced trees ideal. If not managed = many trunks at 150mm = no splitting required • Black wattle, Casuarina both excellent. • Under powerlines = good spot

x) SOIL CONSERVATION AND REHABILITATION EROSION CONTROL GULLY • Need to slow down rate of water flow • Trees planted on contour + deep rooted grasses =  infiltration,  humus • Influenced by entire catchment (need to involve neighbours) • To lesser extent, trees hold banks (never plant inside due to scouring)

SHEET & RILL • Caused by slope length, steepness & poor ground cover. • Trees planted on contour (reduces slope length) • Trees reduce impact of rain on soils.

SLUMPING Occurs 50-75 years after trees killed. Trees which bind and dry the soil

NUTRIENT RECYCLERS Access nutrients much deeper than annuals and bring to surface in leaf litter • Use animals to transport • Use as mulch on intercrops Legumes when cut = flush of nitrogen. Provide habitat for animals = extra nutrient cycling.

xi) SALINITY CONTROL AND REHABILITATION

Picture of flat land strategy (shows rising water table once original vegetation removed and land is cropped. Steps of appropriate vegetation to lower water table and return to tree cover. • Must transpire water table down o transpiration relates to leaf area. o Aim for total canopy cover as soon as possible • If already saline, trees won’t grow. (salt bush > lucerne > trees)

Picture of slope strategy • Focus on both recharge and discharge o Trees uphill to reduce water reaching lower water table o Tree cover at base to transpire lower water table (if already saline, as above)

STRUCTURES

TEMPERATE

Cold in winter and hot in summer (except by ocean where more moderated)

Main aim: • During winter – keep cold out, keep warmth in • During summer – keep heat out, let cool evening breezes in

House proportions & window placement • Layout o No more than 2 rooms deep o E/W axis 1.5 times longer than N/S axis o E/W axis facing sun • Room placement o Bedrooms and those of little use to shade side o Areas of high activity placed to sun side for winter warmth. (Kitchen, dining, living, study/office) • Windows o Eaves and windows  Exclude summer sun  Allow in winter sun  Heat stored in thermal mass (slab floor, mud walls, water tanks)  % window coverage, roughly the latitude of dwelling o East side – small to allow morning sun o West and Shade side – few windows o Heavy floor to ceiling curtains, with pelmets, closed at night in winter o Summer:  Windows open at night allow house to cool, closed in morning.  Exterior blinds to east and west prevent sun entry on very hot days • Heating and Cooling o Glass house on sun side (winter warmth, summer venting) o Shade house at rear (draws cool air in summer, insulates against cold winds)

Insulation • Heavy insulation in ceiling keeps warm winter air in • If retrofitting, draught proofing & insulating walls & ceiling = 50%  in heat costs. • Floors insulated (rigid foam 4-5cm thick) • Ground insulated to 1m in cold areas (ground acts as heat bank • Draught proofing on all doors • Double-glazed windows are better insulated

Vegetation • Deciduous trees and wines on sun side = summer shade, winter light. • Shade house at rear, mulched with sprinkler.

TROPICS

The humid tropics are usually more prone to periodic catastrophe than temperate lands (except for fire). The only safe long-term house sites are: • Above the reach of tsunami • Sheltered from cyclone and hurricane tracks • Above valley floors subject to mud flow or volcanic ash flow • On ridge points or plateaus out of the path of rock or mud slides triggered by clear felling, torrential rain or earthquake • Inland form easily-eroded sandy beaches.

Main aim • To prevent sun from striking the house • To dissipate built-up heat (humans, appliances, cooking)

Hence, primary considerations are: • Shading the house • Orienting it to catch cooling breezes

House design • Elongated or irregular to increase surface area • No solid, insulated walls to accumulate heat • Often open plan style for air circulation • Internal walls made of light material, stop short of roof to allow air flow • Ventilation is essential: o Window placement (vertical louvres act as air scoops) & air vents o Shade house added to shade sided, with cross ventilation from solar chimney • Wide verandahs on all sides of house (can support vine crop) o Subtropics – keep sun side open for winter warmth • Vegetation shades house o Tall canopy (palms) rather than dense branching o Don’t completely surround (allows cool breeze in, prevents humidity build up) • Heat sources detached from main structure (Hot water, stove etc.) o Outdoor kitchen for summer use common • Insect screens on all doors and windows • Roof: o Painted white or is reflective to reflect heat. o Steep angle to shed water and withstand strong winds o In hurricane areas, strong cross bracing and deep ground anchors necessary (bamboo groves provide flexible barrier) • Hurricane cellar or stone-concrete core (bathroom) can be build inside or outside for emergencies. Windows and doors provided with strong wooded locks (drop in bars)

DESERT

Similar to cool climate and sub tropics design (needs summer cooling & winter, or night, warmth)

Features of effective design in traditional Arid settlements: • Houses found in clusters in many traditional desert areas. Tall and narrow, shade each other. • Vegetation can do the same job where houses more isolated. • Cool courtyards in building interiors; narrow and tall to preserve shade • Air drawn from cool shaded areas using vents at roof level. • Evaporation strategies from water in tunnels; unglazed pots; tanks; fountains; bark mulch; Hessian ‘wicks’ • Narrow East west streets maximised (shaded by tall buildings or trees); broad north-south streets minimised (aligned with winds). • Use of white painted massive walls as cool surfaces • Small windows; most light is indirect from inner courtyards • Towers; vanes and air scoops for ventilation systems • Cooking outdoors under shade trellis • Earth sheltered or underground housing, of various types • Vines on walls, over roof areas, gardens, storehouses • Roof area creatively used for drying crops, washing clothes, pigeon lofts.

Settlement siting • Most important factor is water harvest and storage • Thermal Belt o Exists often 10 – 20m above peneplain o Desirable because flat ground can become very cold at night • Narrow east-west wadis excellent sites (shaded, good water supply and growing conditions)

Underground and Caves • Most desirable according to those who live in deserts. • Ideal is in soft rock capped with calcrete or a hard impermeable layer. • Large bore drills available in mining areas • Hand tools and wheelbarrow will also suffice • Gutters built above cave, diverting water to stores • Can include multiple rooms including cisterns for water store, fish ponds and citrus orchards (only tops of trees visible) • Illuminated by: o Skylights (Fresnal lenses, surface mirrors, reflector mirrors and light guides illuminate corridors) o One end of house open to light (vines shade entrance) • Good venting essential. (particularly volcanic sediments due to radon gas) Solar Chimneys • Temperatures fluctuate about 5C year round. Remain at about 25C in Central Aust.

Hot Caves • Entrance overhangs to catch air rising upslope • Inner shaft on an incline to trap warm air • Good for stock and grain store in winter

Cold caves • Entrance placed in depression on hill side where cold night air pools • Inner shaft on a decline to trap cold air • Good for root store, books, machinery • Sill is essential to divert water away

Earth Sheltered housing • Where soils or stone won’t support caves • Provides benefits of underground dwelling, but avoids risk of collapse, flooding and seepage • Construction: o Build like turkey’s nest dam above ground o Walls and roof concreted o Covered in earth o Entrance shaded with vines

Surface Housing • Practical where flooding may occur and sediments unstable • Ultimate Cooling Device = Earth tunnel o Minimum 1m deep, 20m long, ideally slopes downhill o In tunnel: Large unglazed pots; pans of wet coke; coarse material kept drip fed • Other cooling methods: o Internal courtyards (latticed or shaded overhead, or 2 storey building shades) o Extensive Fully enclosed vine, mulch floors, trickle irrigated (at least 30% of floor area to keep cool) Hanging ferns and house plants, fountains, & unglazed pots also help o Down draughts (prevailing wind directed through evaporative strategies mentioned above) o Induced Cross ventilation (solar chimney, air intake from shaded cool areas (10-15C below ambient temp). o Attached shade house, garden and trellis integral to the design of the dwelling. (reduce climatic need for energy use whilst providing food) • House design o Thermal mass to trap winter heat (edge insulated slab far more effective) o White painted exterior walls reflect heat o Long east west orientation allows winter sun entry o Glazing most useful to sun side: 100% cold areas, to 25% warm areas o External blinds on windows stop hot winter suns entering o Heavy roof insulation, with thick vines covering roof o Cool deserts – Glasshouse provides winter warmth; summer ventilation; early and late plant growth, food drying. • Benefits of combined strategies above in third world: o Will save thousands of hectares of forest (reduced firewood need) o Reduced need for fossil fuels (financial strain) o Reduced illness due to smoky fires, cold and tiredness after cold nights

Placement of Vegetation • Low westerly sun adds the most heat. o No windows placed here o Thick screens of vegetation, vines or turf banks placed here • Shade side of house – enclosed trellis built • East side – part shaded by deciduous trees or vines (can have small windows) • Deciduous vines on sun side prevent overheating during summer months.

Home energy conservation • Solar hot water heater o Grid of plastic pipe in soot-covered sand under glass o Coil on pipe on a metal roof • PV cells provide electricity • Cooking from gas or firewood • Wastewater to firewood plantation (town waste supplies could supply all firewood supplies)

House Water

Discussed in Dryland strategies section Spouting from all roof areas to tanks

Seed Saving Why Save Seed? • Increasing concern over loss of genetic diversity • Large companies have taken over majority of family owned seed businesses and produce fewer uniform varieties. • 95% of staple food crops are hybrid.* • Agricultural practises have changed to larger acreages • Drought and wars have prevented heritage from continuing • Scientists are not interested in venturing into remote areas to collect rare varieties for gene banks, nor are they interested in those of limited commercial value. • There is a loss of essential characteristics when many seeds are grown out from gene banks as they are done so under different conditions. • The Green Revolution introduced so called high yield pest and disease resistant seeds but over time did not compare to the performance of traditional varieties *Hybridisation • The crossing of two genetically different varieties. It aims to merge the good traits of each into one plant. This hybrid vigour is reduced in subsequent generations so seed does not stay true to form. Eg. May cross early maturing and high yielding traits. Genetic Modification (GM) • Taking useful gene/s and incorporating them into another plant. • Speeds the process of selective breeding with instant results • Used for genetic resistance to herbicides/pesticides so higher concentrations can be used Open Pollinated Varieties Special seeds to save to maintain diversity include: • Heirloom Varieties- handed down between generations • Local Varieties – grown in one region for many generations. Often hard to find out who brought them to an area. • Seeds brought into country by Recent Migrants Pollination Occurs where the male parts of the flower is deposited on the female parts of the flower (complete flowers). Normally one flower has both parts. Exceptions are Cucurbit family (melons, pumpkins, cucumbers) where there are separate male and female flowers on the same plant; or asparagus and kiwi where there are male and female plants.

Self-pollination-occurs on some complete flowers where the male and female parts are so close that only the slightest wind is needed for them to brush (lettuce, tomato, okra). In peas and beans pollination occurs before the flower is even open.

Cross pollination- needs an external agent eg wind (spinach, silverbeet, corn so plant closely in block) or insects (brassicas, carrots, onions) to create fertile seeds. Particularly important to rogue out plants that are not true to form before flowering.

Natural cross pollination –can occur between plants even when they are self pollinating (insects naturally transfer it) and can cause crossing between different varieties eg chillies and capsicum.

Hand pollination- suitable for cucurbit family to control parentage. They will cross pollinate between species eg. Butternut pumpkin with Queensland Blue Pumpkin. Choose flowers the night before they open and tie with twisty. In morning cut male flower, remove petals and rub onto female flower. Close female flower again until it withers.

Keeping Purity There are several strategies to collect seed from plants that cross pollinate between varieties, thus maintaining their pure strain (ask class-write on board). • Grow them apart: different distances applicable (bees travel 4km from hive). Hedges, barriers and buildings deflect insect flight paths. • Grow them at different times: grow plants that cross in different seasons, particularly effective for crops that flower all at the same time (mid, early, late season). • Bag flower heads: Only for self pollinating plants. Cover blossoms with a paper bag or tights to exclude insects or pollen in the air. Remove once fruit is set. • Cage plants: Particularly suitable for plants that flower over a long period of time eg. Chillies and eggplant. Those that need cross pollination will need to be pollinated by hand. • Cage plants on alternate days: If two varieties are flowering at the same time and need pollinating by insects

Selecting and Collecting • Roguing: Pull out plants with undesirable characteristics before flowering time. Look for strongest plants with good characteristics (survived bad weather, are pest free, slow to bolt, early corn cobs etc). • Tagging: Tie a ribbon around plants or pods that are for collection so that members of the household don’t pick them. Note characteristics eg. Early maturing. • Variation: Aim for a fair degree of variation which is essential for the crop to adapt to change. Self pollinated varieties have less variation (inbreeders). It is recommended that half a dozen plants of cucurbit family are kept. Corn, sunflowers and onion should keep as many as possible to keep characteristics eg multicoloured corn. • Timing: Pick after dew has evaporated (10am)

Cleaning, Drying and Storing The chaff and stems of seed heads can harbour insects that may attack stored seed • Wet cleaning: for plants with seeds in their moist flesh (tomatoes and cucurbits). Scoop seeds into water and rub vigorously. Put in sieve and rinse with water. Dry on a labelled plate or greaseproof paper. • Dry cleaning: (beans, sweetcorn, lettuce, carrot, onion, beet). Leave plant to produce dry seeds on bush. Then roll, crush, winnow or sieve (activity) • Drying: Hang in paper bags in gentle breeze, spread out on newspaper, put in bowl on windowsill. Bite large seeds. • Storing: Larger seeds tend to last longer than small. Look up storage life in Seed Savers table generally between 1 & 5 years. Seeds last if stored in dark, cool (5c), stable conditions free of moisture. Place in paper bags/dark jars/black film canisters in dark rat proof cupboard/metal box and store on South side of house or in dry cellar or fridge (if electricity is constant). Ensure no moisture in air – use silicon bags separated from seeds by cotton wool. Only store seeds on a dry day. • Weevils: affect bean and corn seeds. Once dry place in freezer for 2 days before storage (don’t open container before it is at room temp) or coat with a thin layer of edible oil. • Labelling: Important Seed Saving Networks Australia has over 50 local seed saving networks. Go to www.seedsavers.net to find out more info.

Practical Class to collect, and de-seed one wet and one dry fruit or vegetable trying out different methods and experiencing different tools.

Name Seed Saving Practical Session Aim To give hands on experience of wet and dry seed cleaning techniques. Timing With seed saving Resources Whole fruit/vegetable seed heads Paper bags Large bowls (for winnowing) Sieves of different guage Water (to rinse wet seeds) Knives, spoons Newspaper Glass jam jars Black film canisters Dark glass jars Labels, pens Silica gel sachets/rice grains (as a diuretic in storage container) Activity • Set up different work stations for wet seed cleaning and dry seed cleaning with appropriate equipment. • Class to rotate around stations and try different techniques. • Once dry seeds are cleaned they should be stored in and labelled appropriately. Notes Activity could include class going out in to garden and collecting seed direct from the plants. Wet cleaning: for plants with seeds in their moist flesh (eg. tomatoes and cucurbits). Cut open fruit, scoop seeds into water and rub vigorously. Put in sieve and rinse with water. Dry on a labelled plate or greaseproof paper. Alternatively scoop seeds into jam jar and add a little water to cover, then leave on a warm windowsill to ferment. Once the pulp is easily separated from the seed, put in sieve and rinse with water. Dry on a labelled plate or greaseproof paper. Dry cleaning: (eg. beans, sweetcorn, lettuce, carrot, onion, beet). Leave plant to produce dry seeds on bush. Then roll, crush, winnow or sieve. Summary Points • .Tomatoes and beans are the easiest seeds to start saving as they do not cross pollinate and have good viability. • Different techniques are appropriate according to the scale one plans to seed save on. Home garden seed saving does not need any specialist equipment but larger/commercial scale does. • Discuss storage strategies including vermin & weevil problems & solutions.

HUMID COOL TO COLD CLIMATES

Characteristics • Classic humid S-shaped landscape • Dealing with seasonal factors such as frost, snow, ice and frozen ground. o Valley floors very susceptible o Often a clear frost line indicated by existing vegetation • Usually a winter wet period, but rain can arrive in any month. • Drought common in late summer • Mediterranean o Valley floors preferred for cropping o On slopes, deep rooted, drought resistant trees. • Mesothermal climates (lie in westerly wind belt, “roaring forties”, Latitude 40-45 o Winds especially damaging (strong, gusting, salt from ocean) o Windbreak essential to animal health o Must develop permanent forest edges (to protect crops, single aged tree stands, fire)

Soils • Able to accumulate humus under natural conditions, whether forest or prairie. • PH: o Quite low in areas of poor drainage (3.5-4.5 from humic acids) o Rarely exceeds 7 (only over limestone, dolomite and chalk deposits) • Usually has fairly good structure and clay fractions, high natural humus and CEC. • Once adjusted for pH, micronutrients and trace elements, are ideal crop soils

Landform and water conservation

• Open water storage o Often very appropriate to mesothermal landscape o Generally sufficient clay fractions (40%) for construction of dams o Evaporation < Precipitation • Overriding design - Water management, Access, Plant and Animals • Drought proofing – achievable with skilled design over a wide range of soils and landscapes. o Gravity flow irrigation o Soil conditioning prior to forest or pasture establishment o Fire control (downslope flooding and integrated farm design) • Duties of water in landscape: o Irrigation of crops and forests (soil and pond storage) o Home use (cooking, drinking, bathing, cleaning and toilet) o Source of energy (turbines or as hydraulic pressure) o Growing fish and aquatic plants, and as growing medium itself o Carrier for nutrients o Recreational and aesthetic uses

DRYLAND STRATEGIES

1. INTRODUCTION

Some features of deserts: • Plants - copious seed with long viability. Often wind dispersed • Termites and ants more effective than worms – aerators & decomposers • Favourable seedling conditions as rarely as 7-20yrs. • Much of water may end in salt pans – evaporates • Normal erosion by wind but rare rains shape main erosion features (turbulent events) • Animals burrow, seek shade or nocturnal to conserve water (highly adapted for conditions) • Plants: o Plant associations may be very varied due to varied conditions (slope, soil depth, salinity, browsing, pH, rock type) o SEMI-ARID – steppe, scrub, & low forest vegetation o ARID – Steppe & scattered low shrub o DESERT – little but oases & ephemeral vegetation • Salting o The presence of trees =  transpiration,  evaporation keeping salts from surface o No vegetation = capillary action brings salts to surface (Mg, S, Ca, K compounds) and vegetation can no longer be established • Definition o Hyperarid: 0-2cm (Namib desert, central Sahara) o Extremely dry: 2-5cm annual avg o Arid: 5-15cm o Semi-arid 15-20cm, max 40cm

• Paradox: in almost all large deserts – EXOTIC RIVERS run through (from more humid forested regions) OASES. Third is AQUIFERS – must use with caution (oases in depressions may be fed) • Instead of focus on exotic waters, our aim = o Attempt to  input of water to aquifers, soil and streams o Rehumidify desert airstreams by  Planting trees  Protecting existing vegetation

2. PRECIPITATION

• Only in some deserts does rain fall fairly reliably, in a seasonal distribution (areas affected by Monsoon borders, westerly coastal belts) • Elsewhere, rain = episodic (averages are meaningless, may be years without rain)

OPPORTUNISTIC RESPONSES • Distant rains a trigger that sets off whole sequence of migration & perhaps intensive breeding programmes • After large events  truly remarkable o Ephemeral plants carpet ground o Flowers and seed produced in abundance o Buried tubers = patches of melon, bean & yam o Trees or shrubs may produce numerous seedlings where few trees existed o In streams and pools: frogs, turtles and fish appear from mud and rare permanent pools o Fish breed and sea birds migrate inland: bird life can be abundant o For a few months life is riotous and breeding unconfined o Animals and birds flock to waterholes and spreads over new forage areas o Long term collapse  slower but inevitable • Walkabout example: o Not just unpredictable and arbitrary as viewed by calendar ruled Europeans o Sensible, planned & appropriate response to their environment, which presents rare opportunities (birds, plants, animals, fish, frogs, turtles • Our strategy must be: o Catch part of 88% of water that either evaporates or rushes unused across land o Store below ground for prolongation of growth period o Rehumidify airstreams with trees and shrubs. o In natural conditions < .8% water infiltrates to aquifers.

3. TEMPERATURE

• Follows a sin curve o Minimum 7 am o Max 8 am o Small whirlwinds begin to rise after 12 • Soils follow same general curve, but peak 1 hr earlier • Not much fluctuation 30cm below: o Many animals burrow this far

4. SOILS

Normally expect: • Mainly alkaline soils in waterways of deserts, with areas of surface salts and carbonates • Waterways = where we usually locate settlements (to take adv of runoff) • pH 8.5-9 not atypical, drying waterholes up to 10-11 • Soils may have high potential if pH adjusted and irrigation water available. • Acidic sandy soils form at deeply weathered granites (may dominate lg areas of landscape)

High pH = deficiencies in Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn • Deficiencies indicated in foliage (Designers manual for reference) • Foliar sprays, elemental sulphur, and oxides or sulphates of deficient elements.

Non-wetting sands and high salt levels strategies • Humus or bentonite for non-wetting sands • Swales • Raised beds with high edges

Despite problems, we can usually create: • Home gardens • Adapted tree crop systems • Selected areas will grow excellent fruit, veg and tree crop with appropriate water runoff harvest.

Phosphorus • Often locked up • Essential for plant growth • May need to inoculate plants with mycorrhiza

Fertilizer • Should be used sparingly (except for humus and limited animal manures) • Excessive green growth in trees = drought stress • Plastic bag with .5kg phosphate & slow release fert with pin holes (lasts life of tree)

Mulch • Good sources – shredded bark, manures, & leaf nutrients with compost below + sulphur if pH high

Best advice: Get thorough tests of both soils and leaf matter before and after growth.

& Test water regularly for: • Pollution and salts • Deep bores for excess nutrients and radioactive pollutants.

5. LANDSCAPE FEATURES

When reading a desert landscape, with a mosaic of vegetation we need to note: • PROCESS – whether wind, water or infiltration is active locally • ROCK & SOIL TYPE – decide local response to process and produce characteristic landform • ASPECT – slightest shading by hills changes opportunities and promotes growth • FIRE FREQUENCY - & time since last fire • DATE OF LAST HEAVY RAIN – more than 12mm, may have been trigger for specific age group of plants.

Dryland vs Humid landscape characteristics.

Humid: • softer more rounded outlines • classic s-shape, cliffs are rare (coasts, fault lines) • shaped by water

Dryland: • Erosion landforms more numerous • Angular and actively eroding • Mainly shaped by wind (large rainfall shapes main erosion forms)

Relevance • With global warming, whether patterns are changing • Mediterranean and cool areas during summers • Sub-tropics in dry winters

Main Desert rules • Always carry out modest trials before proceeding • Always get soils professionally tested (pH varies greatly both high and low, deficiencies common) • 20 : 1 catchment area to irrigated land • Everything we do is an anti-evaporation strategy o Shade o Wind reduction o Getting trees up =  shade, wind,  condensation o Water storages in soil, silt fields, soak pits. Minimising water surface area • Shade, wind, silt, soakage = repeated strategy

Scarps and Wadis • Scarp is fairly straight or slightly curved • Wadi – typically at right angles to scarp face • Water runs o gently off hard rock surfaces o down gentle valleys o scour holes form o down a waterfall to valley floor o also sheets down the face where it may undercut and form caves o water runs as mixed mud-silt-stone torrents. • Water storage and use o Keep houses and roads well above valley floors, cutting into pediment o At the top  Create pools with rock/concrete walls with a tap  Place gutters above useful caves to keep drier o Clean scour holes and seal for storage as tanks (can be inside dams) o Vegetating upper slopes – only the hardiest trees o Wadi floor  Deep sands, gravels & silts prevalent. Spill out for few km onto lower erosion surface.  Gabions – silt fields build up, opportunistic cropping.  Minor wadi – whole width can be dammed  Wide wadi – main flow channel open, with silt fields to side, fed from side valleys. o Once flood spreads to lower plain:  Broad walls of earth & stone walls constructed to soak into fields  Walls stabilised with unpalatable vegetation  Limonia – dry dams; wall holds 1-1.5m water; gabion overflow; Forests at base (citrus, olives, palms)  Nabateans – ancient system of Negev desert • series of walls like fish scales; • Holds 80-90% runoff • 20:1 water (catchment : field); • .5-1m water soaked into each field (allows grain crop) • or directed to soakage pit with garden/trees surrounding

Domes & Inselbergs

Concrete or stone gutters lead water to • Walled fields • Storage in cisterns: o Access ramps for pigeon, quail, small animals o Thatch stops evaporation & excludes large animals o Possible aquaculture

Fold Mountains

Anticlines (land is up folded) – rock weakens; erodes Synclines (land is down folded) – rock compressed; little erosion

Palisades occur like sub contours • Trees larger and greener on upper slope (similar to swale but not as effective) • Horizontal bore often reaches sweet water

Shallow fast dry-stream systems • Upper foothill region of folds; • 4-15m wide, banks .5-2m high; • bed usually rock filled, detritus along bank shows flood level. • Cannot effectively dam the violent flows as it fills with boulder and silt in a few rains • Strategy o On outer edge of bends: Restrict flow & Bleed off from stream o Oversized, wide and shallow contour trench = planting site & silt trap (easily cleaned) o Through reed bed = reasonably clean water o Send to Limonia, dams or soil stores

Dune Country

Pelleting • Seed, mud, fert, insect repellent (Neem leaf powder, neutralised copper sulphate with lime) • Mixed and rolled into little balls • Won’t be eaten by birds or insects • Cast out, covered by sand, germinate in next rains event • Dependent upon: Good rain, pest and browse control before and minimal protection after sowing

Pitting • Excellent wherever rain flows or falls over bare sandy ground • Number of methods used, creating indentations in sand • Seed and fert cast out falls to base of pits and is covered by sand • Responds well to subsequent rain • Bill  good results near Alice Springs (halted the terrible dust storms due to clearing of veg)

Dunes • Act as tanks o Water rushes and sedges common at edge of large dune complexes o As much dune-fed as dune-dammed o Largest trees in vegetated country often on ridges (roots into reservoir below) • Plant Establishment o Boxes or rice straw baskets buried 30cm deep China o Pioneer trees planted inside o Straw matting on surface stabilises sand o All will benefit form nitrogen, phosphorus and trace element applications on old dunes • Stabilisation o Delicate desert crusts stop dunes forming in some deserts o Crusts are critical to stability, stopping wind erosion. o Easily damaged by hoofed animals, fast vehicles, agriculture o Urgent cases of stablisation  Pebble beds  Brush fences (.9-1m high; parallel rows 7m apart; firm posts every 3-4m; gaps must be < 50% = drops sand; combine with planting sequences.

Gullies

• Often begin as flat floors of valleys; 2-8cm deep & 20m or wider, braided and stable; water absorbs over wide area • Overgrazing  deep channels erode at first, becoming steep valleys • Strategy o • Controlling gullies essentially a matter of o Relieving the causes (overuse & lack of water control) o Preventing further cut back of valleys  Diversion of water from valley heads (drains and ripping)  Small gullies can be bulldozed full  Large gullies – retention banks from stone or wire fence • Best if small and frequent (.5m high series. If larger, splash apron required) • Wall must extend up gully sides above flood level. Key in well. • Silt builds up behind • Spreads flow, creates absorbent flats, good growing space  Gully planting (permanent vegetation rather than cropping)Spreader banks

Stony (Giber) Desert

Stone layer may develop over fairly well structured soils (exposed after centuries of wind erosion) • Stones reveal direction and intensity of local sand storms

Road graders passing create windrows of stones. Present great opportunity for: • Soaking in runoff • Establishing vegetation with reduced evaporation • Creates habitat for lizards, reptiles and birds (manures deposited)

Lower foothills and plains

Graded contours will back up a great distance Circular swales in sequence will stop runoff and catch organic matter, seeds etc. Swales will back up a great distance also (forming a lake). • Suitable where soils are permeable • May develop as salt flats where clay soils and salty surface water is used • Crops can be sown following infilitration

6. HARVESTING OF WATER IN ARID LANDS

• Water is the dominant theme for designers in arid landscapes • Fresh water o Success of settlement depends on availability of fresh water (< 700ppm salt) o Fresh water must be intercepted before it:  Washes salt from soils  Mixes with deeper saline ground waters  Runs off roof areas and rocks • Our aims can be summarised as: o To store fresh water for cooking and drinking o To divert sheet flow and waste water to gardens o To infiltrate water into soils and to produce plant growth on that site o To give rainwater runoff time to soak into the landscape where we live.

Conservation of rainwater

2 basic strategies: • Fitting of tanks, cisterns, or sealed wells to take house roof water • Provision of very large public sealed and roofed reservoirs (from public buildings, paved areas and roads) • Overflow and road runoff sent to swales (cheapest water storage for trees) o Subsequent trees will provide shade etc

Water conservation in homes must be addressed • Metering water on a sliding scale • The most can be saved by: o Using as little as possible on gardens can save about 50% • Shrubbery instead of lawns • Trickle irrigation • Mulch • Shade o Saving by less use • Hand basin or raised shower to low-flush toilet cistern • Bathwater to first cycle of washing machine • Laundry water to garden

Tank & cistern • Catchment o Sealed and compacted roads a good resource o Cheapest catchment = bare rock slabs (granite) with a gutter • Placement o Uphill of houses = gravity flow o Windmill to tank stand in flat country o Large tanks can form foundations for sheds o Between such tanks = cool store • Common myths (tank use rare except in Australia) o It is stagnant water (untrue; it tastes fresh for years) o Breeds mosquitos (not if covered, can be easily excluded) o Contains dust from the roof (true; but settles as biological sediment and keeps the water clear

Water Harvesting in Open sites • Where good clays are found, earth tanks can be made in the ground. They should be: o Deep and narrow o Intercept a run-off area o Be roofed, ideally, to prevent evaporation • Halting run-off. Directing to soakages and planting sites whilst still fresh (picks up salt as it travels) • Normal estimates of run-off allow us to make educated guesses of volume, and hence capacity of channels or estimate flood levels. o 12% run-off for forested areas o 20% for non forested areas with sandy or friable soil o 80% for the rare concreted, compacted, or clay sealed bare sites. • Other factors affecting run-off: Catchment Size

Barrier Dams

Planned to fill with silt and rubble in the first few years in arid areas. • Water is stored in the sand and rubble o Reducing evaporation o Provides planting site o Built in 1.5-2m stages o Gabion allows water to filter down to pipe, taking water to settlement. • Clearwater dams built: o Must be well clear of such valleys o Water bled from other source as discussed o Margins planted up o Reducing evaporation  Surface area to volume ratio as low as possible  Deep shaded valleys more protected.  Cover with floating rafts, plastic bottles, concrete with polystyrene etc.  Series of smaller dams better than one large. • Higher ponds drained to lower as volume decreases. • Shorter series better ie 2 series of 3 better than 1 series of 6. • CAREFUL SITE CHOICE, RESPONSIBLE BEHAVIOUR, MODEST SCALE.

Evaporation and Evapotranspiration

In most arid areas, evaporation will exceed 100cm/yr

Hot winds have a severe effect: • Increases transpiration 10%-30% over background effects • Wind from arid to humid areas affects crop up to 400m before non-evaporative water moisture load • Windbreaks are essential o No doubt they use less water than that removed by hot winds over crops o Should of course be dry-adapted and beneficial to crop (Acacia albida, Prosopis spp. common) Shade and wind reduction drastically reduce evaporation effects • Shade cloth (up to 50%) • Vines • Canopy palm • ‘Umbrella’ Acacia. • Mulches

7. THE DESERT GARDEN

Specific desert garden strategies required because of profound effects unique to drylands: • Water solutes are likely to be higher than in humid areas • PH and mineral deficiencies have severe effects on health • May be high nitrate levels in water and food • Light saturation of garden plants may create the need for shade to achieve good growth in gardens. • Nomadic and wild animals are specific problems

To relieve malnutrition, home garden = primary strategy

Fencing for Animal exclusion • Post and wire fencing (ideally electrified) – Bill “It is much cheaper to fence out these devastating and ever-hungry animals from settlements and gardens than it is to airlift emergency food aid to starving people, or to withstand the social costs of poverty and famine” • Ditch and wall to 3m high (Ha-ha fence) • Rock barrier if available • Thick thorny shrubs.

Soil and water • Careful analysis is required for deficiencies as mentioned above • All rain run-off must be carefully harvested and used to flush salts if local water > 800ppm

Bed Shape Built up (logs, mud, stone) Small is best (3x1m) Can be flooded Mulch filled

Shade Up to 75% (slats, shade cloth, vines, light crowned legume)

Plant Choice • Constant plant sequence in all beds so they are always self shaded. • Local expertise and agricultural department advice is called for. • Deep rooting perennials (asparagus, globe artichoke) are standby crop, as are drought tolerant staples such as sweet potato and most cucurbits and the melon family. • Needs an emphasis on staple trees adapted to dry periods (species mentioned in dryland food forest) • Every veg we can grow in temperate and tropical areas will grow well in small beds flooded every 3-10 days, mulched and part shaded • Every wall and roof must be seen as an opportunity for vine crop. Solid mud brick pillars can support trellis over garden area. • Semi-wild very hardy bulbs, tubers and yams in selected sites

Planting Advanced Perennials (herbs, shrubs, trees) • Keep in pots until rains come • Transplant in cool weather • Water hole well first • Push in shade branch nearby to protect Seedlings from trays or pits (lettuce, brassicas, chillies) • Plant in cool weather, towards evening, in well watered soils • In compost dibble hole for roots • If in deep mulch, part mulch and add ¼ bucket soil and plant into it. (flat rock upwind) Tubers and Bulb • Push down into mulch, greened and preferably sprouted Large or fine seeds – 2 possibilities • Scatter seeds over fine tilth bed, cover with hessian until first have sprouted (suits larger crop) • Lens of 4-5cm soil over thick (12cm) mulch (suits repetitive sowing in home gardens)

Essentials of Desert garden • Small raised flooded beds, thickly mulched • Permanent hardy trees on leach fields or in swales • Semi-wild very hardy bulbs, tubers and yams in selected sites • Every bit of wastewater and surplus runoff directed to leach fields • Vines, with roots in cool mulch or inside shade walls, a major feature of the garden. Every wall, open space and roof vine-shaded • Mulch, Mulch, Mulch, Mulch

8. GARDEN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Use of water unguarded or unsheltered is wasteful (10%  in evaporation possible)

No doubt that trickle, drip or seepage irrigation is the most efficient dryland watering method • 10-50% of sprinkler use • Only low head is needed • Water is placed right at plants • Use with caution with waters > 800 ppm salt

Alternatives: • Unglazed earthen pots • Upturned bottles with hole • Short tubes of pebbles

Leach fields from septic tank

Condensation strategies • Plant shields of plastic, mesh or metal (condenses water at night, reduces wind evap, browse protection, Bill “80-90% difference in survival rates” • Stone mulches (provide: condensation; weed control; windbreak; root weight against wind-throw; small animal refuge adds nutrient; reduced soil evaporation & ground below remains damp) • Plastic sub surface mulches (holds humus and moisture in sands) • Organic mulches (for restricted sites are of great help; extreme conditions may need 45cm or deeper but may be difference between life and death of plants) • Closed recycling systems (where feasible can totally enclose in glasshouse and plastic tunnel system. Water loss very low, only from ventilation, the rest condenses on inside)

9. DESERT SETTLEMENT BROAD STRATEGIES

• Bill says “All settlements (ancient to modern) must be limited by the water supply available to them” • The majority of dryland settlements have managed, one way or another to destroy themselves and their hinterlands. The common ways they perish are: o To exceed the capacity of (or to pollute) local water resources o To devastate their environment for firewood and fodders for domestic livestock o To fail to govern their expansion, or to assess a limit to growth. Consequently (as with many societies) wars and invasions, or refugees and migrations, follow. • Bill believes pastoralism to be one of the key factors in all arid landscape devastation. o Strict education in rangeland management and a strict restriction of numbers is necessary to enable settlement to survive. o If grazing is controlled, firewood supply and essential windbreak is also ensured, as is basic food resource from local agriculture. o If ungoverned, we are doomed to create deserts from drylands. • Must take a cautious approach to dryland settlement. We must locate near water or sufficient resources. Three broad choices are available: o The foothills of run-off uplands (about 5% of total drylands) o Valley or wadi sites, at times under shelter of cliffs and scarps. o Around oases, permanent pools, or reliable exotic streams and freshwater wells. • Once site is selected we can do a great deal about firewood and water storage and eliminate undesirable factors such as dust and excessive heat. • If settlement expands beyond the minimal resources of dry years it is simply deferring catastrophe. Bill says “Thus it is essential, perhaps an iron-clad rule, that any such settlement must be founded to contain only that number of people who can survive the ‘worst case’ scenario”

Dust-storms in settlement Summer heat = thunderstorms = dry downdraught proceeding = 50-65 km/h winds = great quantities of dust. • Effects can be greatly reduced by: o Sealing roads o Orienting dirt roads across wind o Erecting fences o Ploughing lines o Pitting plains for grasses (good results in Alice Springs) o All the strategies roughen the ground, reducing effective windspeed • Permanent solution = tree lines at 20-30m (useful to region), established using town wastewater. • If not addressed: life miserable every time a car leaves; asthmatic, eye and sinus problems epidemic.

Hedges and Windbreaks • Broad windbreaks of settlement grown on swales and wastewater. • Garden hedges can also provide: o Provide forage for poultry, rabbits and bees o Shelter tall crop such as corn o Provide mulch from clippings and leaf fall o Exclude rampant grass or weeds from garden beds o Help exclude browsing animals or large livestock • Choosing species o Choose highly drought-adapted windbreak o Plastic root barrier (1m deep) between garden and windbreak eliminates competition. o Soft foliage of Acacia, Casuarina, Albizia, and Coprosma = ideal mulches o Investigation of local flora often yields many suitable species o Cactus, Euphorbia and thorny shrubs help exclude livestock. • Many desert and dryland adapted vines exist: o Grape, passionfruit, many beans and peas, cucurbits, yams and vine fruits, forage for rabbits or guinea pig and bees o Protect garden form drying winds and direct sun • Must move from crops and grazing to tree products and forages. o As in tropics, trees = nutrient store o In drylands, trees = ground water moderators. o If enough trees planted, modest grain and pasture also possible. o Our error:  developing grains at expense of trees  extending pasture and crop until we create desert  destroying trees until salts rise and create surface crusts o Where we harvest water, it MUST be to create forests, or risk waterlogged and anaerobic desert soils, and perpetuate or extend salt problems

Planting and vegetation in settlements • Critical settlement strategy is to develop broad (300-400m deep) tree parks around or even within the settlement. o Eliminates drying winds o Also provides: fuels; mulches; medicine; supplement domestic animal forage o First line of defence against desert (gardens and crops can thrive within) • Fuel Forests can be created from excess greywater and sewage o Used for: cooking supply, power supply, essential oils, mulch, and other tree crops such as honey. o Pond sewage first, then drip feed trees o 2 main design elements  Grid of perpetual long-term forest, no more than 300m apart, at least 8 trees wide • Trees initially established with drip irrigation • Selected for hardiness on rainfall alone once established  In sheltered spaces, grid of close spaced (2-3m) trees, on trickle irrigation, harvested in 4-6 year rotation as coppice.

10. PLANT THEMES FOR DRYLANDS

Tree Establishment in deserts • Pelleted and pit-trapped seed awaiting rain on large scale • Valuable fruit, forage, seed source trees need careful establishment. o Plant in relatively cool periods (shallow plant roots cooked above 30C) o Thick mulch in pits near plant and around roots, or stone mulch tree root areas o Plant on swales or pits o Plant gourds, legumes or ground cover around tree to cool the root area o Paint stems white or wrap with foil to prevent sunburn when bark still young o Place shade such as a palm frond for protection o Fence the area or shoot or poison feral rabbits, hares or goats. (Dog) o Plant hardy legume tree intercrop (wind, sun, fertiliser and mulch) • Revegetation of hostile areas (dry, salted, pest invaded areas) o Start with small nuclei and gradually expand perimeter, mulching and returning wastes as we go o Begin upstream and upwind

Planting trees on hard soils, slopes and minor systems • Net and Pan system – to catch sheet run-off • Boomerangs to catch flow from active runnels. • Logs, rocks weighing down a bundle of Spinifex; silts trapped = hardy acacia can take hold • Plantings of hardy grasses (Vetiver) build up silt deltas on bare hard soils

11. ANIMAL SYSTEMS IN ARID AREAS

Small livestock • Do well in deserts. (chickens, quail, guinea fowl, guinea pigs, ducks and geese. Often too hot for rabbits in cages) o Need dense shade shelters & access to shallow clean water o Functions:  Pest reduction (insects, termites & snails)  Provide eggs and small meats (don’t need refrigeration)

Larger livestock • Can thrive on wider range if highly selected and controlled o Provide meat and milk (sheep, a few goats, a few cattle, donkeys & camels) o Best if herded or penned in 15 or so rotated runs, 2-8 years between rotations to recover o Meat dried, salted or smoked

Nomadic spp (kangaroo, antelope, ostrich) • Young can be culled during periods of populations boom. • Healthy adults need to be preserved (proven survivors, breeding stock of future)

Sedentary spp (smaller, slower, or drought adapted spp, remaining in area at all times) • Populations regulated by limiting factors: o Water holes (quail, ground birds) o Shade (Large lizards, surface animals) o Burrow sites (small mammals and lizards) o Forage • Design ways of increasing these niches (water ramps, rock piles, cliff holes, key plants)

Plague spp • Dry the rabbits • Convert pests ie. grasshoppers into valuable meat via chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, fish etc

Livestock in drought • Provide emergency fodder banks o 1hectare = 17-30 cattle can be kept alive during drought o Must be cut and carried daily and fed as 1/3 - 1/2 of ration. o Inga, carob, honey locuste, prosopis (pods), tagasaste, acacia, glyricidia, leuceana, comfrey, pennisetum, arrowroot (canna) o Supplemented by chopped dry stalk material providing molasses with urea available. • Plant on multiple swales with diversion drains leading in. • Adjoining fields edged with wind-break of same forage spp every 20-30m • Provide a shaded pen area (animals kept quiet and not moved about) • Manures and bedding returned to fields

12. SALINITY

Origin • Brought in by sea winds as rain nuclei (CYCLIC SALT); or o Provides plant nutrients but also forms salt ponds and crusts if evaporated • Remains in soils and sediments from marine periods (CONNATE SALT). o Leached from rock minerals by groundwater • Salinity is an induced problem, non-existent before clearing and cropping or grazing. o Therefore it is theoretically preventable and reducible. Preventative policy:  Absolute ban on clearing or tree cutting in any area subject to salting (most arid to semi-arid lands)  Practical field work on alternatives to decide effective local strategies

Causes of Salinity • De-forestation, leading to rising salt water table • Collapse of soils due to inappropriate land use o Cropping and grazing reduces ability of soil to infiltrate water 6-15 vs 30 cm in adjacent fields  Soil humus reduced from ploughing and burning  Compaction o Results in increased overland flow, and subsequent flooding of soils horizons below o Water carries salt through soils (as sodium chloride):  Chloride ions released and rapidly washed away or escape to air  Sodium binds to clay crumb particles, displacing calcium ions – clay structure rapidly collapses (Deflocculation)  Clay particles and minerals displaced by sodium migrate and cement the subsoil in to hydrophobic layer o Surface soil now sealed off  Creates every increasing swamping by overland flow.  Prevents tree planting o Wind erosion aids problems as wind blown clay particles fill rock crevices where recharge occurred before.

W.I.S.A.L.T Approach • Begin at the top of the slope • Interceptor banks, Cutting through cemented layer. o 2m deep and 3-5m wide, lower bank rammed with subsoil layer. o Intercepts all run-off, & seepage through top layer (above cemented B Horizon) o Interceptor bank design  10-15 Slope or more - On Contour, 3m vertical intervals  < 5 Slope – 1:1000 fall to streams, Maximum 300m intervals.  Banks spilled to streams once they reach capacity • Flooding of downhill slopes and further collapse is ceased. 2-3 years, strips in between begin to regenerate with grasses, and dying trees regain health. • Tree lines planted below will decrease wind damage

Groundwater rising Eliminate further clearing Revegetation of upland recharge areas with evergreen trees (transpire far more than crops) A shift from shallow rooted annual or pasture crops to forage trees and fuel-wood supply Eliminate leaky channels for piped irrigation water (or shaded by trees)

PRACTICALS AND GROUP WORK

PRINCIPLES

Multifunction • Split into groups • Each given 3 elements and a plain house block. • Asked to place those elements so that they are performing at least 3 functions

Back up your major functions • Split class into groups with a different major function each. • Fire, Water, Energy, Income, Food • List a number of ways we can back up that function

Diversity exercise - mapping relationships between elements (Rick Coleman) • Split into groups • A number of elements are written up on the board from nature o ie Sun, Water, Worm, Eagle, Insect, Sparrow, Possum, Microbes, Tree • • These are copied onto a large piece of paper randomly around the page • Draw arrows between the elements with a description of their connection o ie Sparrow eats Insect • Everyone in the group must agree before each connection is written down o encourages discussion and bonding o allows the teacher to gauge the ecological understanding of various students, so that weak areas can be addressed, and strong students used as a resource. o Gives the teacher a gauge of the leaders in the group and those more passive • Shows the very obvious interconnection that exists in nature, leading into the benefits of the principle of diversity.

Energy efficient planning

Part 1 - Zones Elements on cards prepared already Hand a few out to each student Each person places their elements on a map drawn on the floor and explains why they would place it where they did.

Part 2 - Sectors Introduce some sectors into the previous exercise Ask each student to pick up one element which they would move as a result.

Part 3 - Slope Introduce slope into the previous exercise Ask each student to pick up one element which they would move as a result.

Relative Location design exercise: Integrated Chicken System • NFP of chicken with the class • Groups of 3-4: given 1 element each to create a NFP analysis. ie orchard, vegie garden, greenhouse, pigs, ducks, aquaculture pond. (write on large paper so other groups can refer to later) (5 mins) • Draw a quick design matching the element analysed with the chicken. Refer to the two NFP & match the needs of each element with the outputs of the other where possible. Looking for as many connections as possible. (10 mins) • Present design to class with brief feedback. (15 mins) • Create design integrating all of the elements. Again, match the needs of one element with products of another. Looking for as many connections as possible (30 minutes) • Present designs with feedback (30 mins)

Materials: • Butcher’s paper • Textas, pencils.

NO DIG GARDEN PRACTICAL

The class to create a no dig garden and plant up with suitable plants (vegies or fruit trees whatever is appropriate for the site)

Materials: • Weed mat, whatever is appropriate to site (newspaper, cardboard, banana leaves, prickly pear, carpet etc) • Trailer load of manure • Mulch

SOILS

Soil Testing Pre-collect and observe various soils with class: include sandy and clay specimens. • Students to: o Handle each specimen dry o Observe the jar test of each specimen (ideally prepared at least a day before)

• Students to form small groups and take samples from different places on the site and to conduct a o Jar test; & o pH test

Compost • Construct a thermophilic compost pile, to be turned and observed every second day.

Compost tea • Brew up a 20L bucket of aerated microbial compost tea. • Materials needed include: 20L bucket, fish tank bubbler, finished compost, garlic bag or stocking to hold compost, some worm castings, 1/8 cup organic molasses, 2 Tbls Oatmeal, 2 capfulls of seaweed extract.

Liquid Fertilizer Sealed container. Fill 1/3 with dynamic accumulators and weeds from garden. Fill with water. Place out on garden towards the end of the course.

PATTERNS

• Students to collect a pattern, & bring back to class. • Describe the patterns it contains to the class. • Draw dendritic, spiral, net and mushroom patterns on board • Divide into 4 groups, one pattern each, and list where pattern observed (5 minutes) • Each group to present back to class. • Bring it back to the main function of that pattern, and elaborate where needed to point out other uses.

WORMS

Construct a simple worm farm

Materials: • Manure • Shredded Newspaper • Worms • Box

FOOD FOREST – design exercise of a food forest through time

Cardboard cut outs of elements including short, medium and long term productive and support species. • Long and medium term trees in 3 sizes (S,M,L) labelled with the number of years old it is (ie medium size Avocado at 10 yrs). • Other elements cut to one size with their life span in years labelled (ie Short term productive tree 5 yrs, Annual legume 1yr etc)

Groups to arrange elements in a productive use of space through time.

Present to the class explaining the role of various elements and their positioning.

WATER

Sandpit prac • Create a mock landscape • Students to apply the water holding strategies they have learnt in the class • Use plastic bags to stop spillways eroding • Spray with a hose once everyone’s done

EATHWORKS

Dumpy or Laser level (if available) • Set out contour markers

A-Frame • Construct A-frame • Calibrate A-frame • Set out level pegs

Bunyip level • Set out drain with a slight fall using the bunyip level.

LETS – Alternative Currency Exercise

• Students decide on name for currency • Each member of the class to choose a skill/resource they can ‘sell’ to others (eg. Electrician, childcare, WEB site design, food surplus, erotic massage). • Draw up a chart on the board listing each person, their trade/resource and a positive and negative column to record trades carried out. • Everyone spends 5-10mins moving around room selling their skills/resources to each other. People to let scribe know each time they sell • Prime one person to only buy services and one person to only sell services.

READING THE LANDSCAPE WALK Walk with students and identify various indicators in the landscape including: prevailing winds, water flow, frost movement, weeds as indicators, soil horizons, good and bad design features of existing properties etc

DESIGN TASK 1 – URBAN DESIGN Students are to: • Form groups • Visit a site (preferably a fairly plain urban backyard) • Interview a client • Measure and map the site • Produce a design to the clients needs and wants • Present design to the class, each student to speak for 5 minutes • Questions from other students and feedback from facilitators

PRINCIPLES REVIEW A light run-through of the principles to refresh them for the students and stress their importance for the final designs. • Students into groups of 4-5 • Each group given a piece of paper with one of the principles on it • They must act out that principle, with the class to guess which one it is. • Each group is then to explain the main function of that principle • Facilitator to write them up on the board with key points and draw any others from the students which weren’t covered by a group. Remind the students of the act night on the final night.

GRAFTING & CUTTINGS

Each student to learn and demonstrate: • whip and tongue graft • budding graft • marquoting • Cuttings (using willow as rooting hormone where available)

Materials: • Grafting knifes or clean stanley knives • Grafting tape • Plastic bag • Compost •

PRUNING

Students to prune fruit and timber trees depending on availability on site

CLIMATE STRATEGIES

• Students to split into groups (3 or 6 depending on numbers) • Each group designated COOL HUMID, DRYLANDS or TROPICS, and model the various strategies discussed in class in the sandpit. Use other props etc.

DESIGN TASK 2 – LARGE SCALE DESIGN Students are to: • Choose the site they wish to design (from Hobby Farm, Business, Eco Village, Large Scale farm) • Groups formed around common property (at least 3, no more than 5) • Visit the site (should be accompanied by a facilitator to ensure that the students observe the major sector design needs of the property) • Measure and map the site (unless map is already available) • Make up a realistic client to design to. • Produce a design to the clients needs and wants • Present design to the class, each student to speak for 10 minutes Questions from other students and feedback from facilitators.